The effects of Stress on Short Term Memory

The effects of Stress on Short Term Memory Free Online Research Papers When someone says the word stress the mind immediately shifts to a negative thought with painful consequences, although stress can be either positive or negative. Negative stress has been blamed for a variety of health issues as well as psychological and physiological symptoms and problems. It is estimated that millions of pounds are lost in work related, educational and health care costs every year due to stress. While stress is a naturally occurring reaction to the environment around the individual it can be harmful if prolonged or in increased amounts. For the purpose of this paper, we will examine the realms of stress and the impact of stress on memory. What is Stress? In a dangerous or unpleasant experience the body reacts automatically to the threat by the brain triggering a number of activities. Stress is defined as a reaction by the body to an internal or external perceived harmful threat, that causes the body to come under pressure or strain (Panzarino, 2006). During an event that an individual feels threatened, physiological triggers in the brain create a state in which many things take place. Chemicals such as adrenaline and Cortisol are released into the blood stream causing defensive actions to take place in the muscles. These chemicals cause heart rate increases which in turn increase blood pressure and blood sugar. The increase in blood flow allows additional oxygen to be distributed throughout the body that is needed for this increased state of alertness and energy. The body basically prepares itself for defensive actions by protecting itself or preparing to run, which ever is most feasible at the time. Most have heard of the term â€Å"fight or flight†; this is what is referred to as the stress induced state. If the individual is to flee they will need more energy and the ability to run from the threat. On the other hand if a fight is in order the body must be prepared for extended bursts of strength and endurance as well as healing capabilities. The chemicals released by the brain prepare the body for these reactions to a stressful event. After the threat has ended and the individual is returned to a stage of safety the body will then return to a normal state or a homeostasis. Types of Stress Acute Acute Stress is a type of stress that is an immediate reaction to an external event, such as a car accident or a loud noise. The immediate changes within the body allow the person to spring into action to determine the appropriate action that is needed. Everyone experiences acute stress on a daily basis. Examples include a soft drink spilling or a boss that is having a bad day at work. This type of stress resolves as quickly as it presents, causing no noticeable long-term effects. During acute stress the body and mind are at its very best. All brain functions including memory are very sharp and processing incoming data. The brain is working very hard to sort through the information and commits the experiences to memory for future use. If the stress is continued it can cause memory to be inhibited, but until that point the memory is sharp. Distress Distress is exactly like it sounds; a negative reaction to changes in environment, mental or internal events that cause an adverse reaction for the individual. The brain does not accept change without reacting. The brain functions more like a computer and works better under the presumption of a routine. When the routine is changed or altered the body reacts to the stress by setting into action a course of events designed to mitigate any perceived damage. Eustress Stress does not necessarily have to be a negative event that triggers the body to respond. Positive stress or eustress is referred to as a positive event that causes an individual to assume a fresh look on life and keep them engaged in living. Stress is the body’s natural reaction to changes in the environment regardless of whether they are positive or negative. For example, the birth of a new child places stress on the mother, but in a positive manner. Eustress has been linked to positive effects on memory in terms of new experiences and memories. Since eustress is typically not a prolonged state it poses little threat to the body and unlike its counterpart, distress, seldom becomes chronic. Chronic Acute stress, eustress and distress are normal reactions as a part of life. The concern and problems come in when the body continues the cycle of stress known as chronic stress. Chronic stress has been linked to serious medical concerns as well as psychological issues. Chronic stress weakens the body’s immune system making the individual more susceptible to illness (Miller, 2002). The frequency and duration of the body’s reaction to stress that is placed on organs of the body can also cause them to break down and begin to weaken leading to heart attacks, strokes and other serious conditions. The brains activity during stress: The brain is where the origination of activity transpires when the body is in a state of stress. When an individual perceives a threat there are several hormones that are released. For example, if you are crossing the street and a speeding car turns the corner and is heading for you, your body enters into the stress reaction possibly before you even realize there is a threat. One of the first things that happens when faced with an immediate threat is the neurotransmitter adrenaline is released into the bloodstream in order to increase heart rate and change the rate of flow of blood. The organs necessary for survival are supplied with oxygen rich blood and all others are silenced. The pituitary gland releases the hormone known as adrenocorticotrophin (University of Pittsburgh, 2006). The adrenocorticotrophin is responsible for triggering the release of Cortisol in the adrenal gland (Miller, 2007). Cortisol is a very important hormone that is needed to free up energy stores and help re store the body to a normally functioning level. After the threat has subsided the body must restore normal energy levels and eliminate the excessive hormones that are circulating throughout the body. Cortisol assists by signaling the release of blood sugar from the liver as well releasing stores of fat for energy use. Cortisol can be said to organize and facilitate the hormones and neurotransmitters during the stressful event (Luipen, 2005). The release of Cortisol is a positive hormonal release for the body, but in cases of chronic stress the body can become accustomed to the additional need for Cortisol therefore increasing the demand. When this happens it can lead to health issues such as hypertension and heart disease (National Institute of Health, 2002). While the body is involved in sustaining safety, another very important activity is transpiring. During the release of the hormones the hippocampus is also engaged in a very important task. The data is stored in the hippocampus for a period of time and then moved into the cerebral cortex for long term storage. This is very important in the area of learning because it provides the individual experience to avoid another stressful situation or event. That is how we learn by experiencing then having the ability to access the information at a later date. In some cases the hippocampus is deprived of glucose because of continued stress it can cause permanent damage. The hippocampus is taxed with making new memories in order for storage and use at a later date. If the decreased glucose level is continued the hippocampus becomes unable to produce new memories. This happens many times in traumatic events and the individual is unable to remember the event. In case of reduced hippocampus abili ty it can not only inhibit memory but it can also inhibit the ability to learn. In a recent study with mice, researchers found that stressed mice were much slower in the learning process than their unstressed counterparts. The research concluded that stress causes a â€Å"fuzz like† symptom because of the slower cognitive processes (Pawlak, 2005). As we know chronic stress and even perceived stress can result in higher levels of cortisol. Cortisol has been linked to decreased memory as well as neuronal death (Neuroanatomy). Patients suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder were found to have a 10% reduction in the hippocampus (Neuroanatomy). This suggests that with repeated and chronic stress the release of the hormones can cause irreparable damage to the hippocampus, causing memories and functioning to diminish. Symptoms of Stress: Individuals react differently to stress and no two individuals are alike, but many have similar symptoms. Symptoms can be physiological or psychological. Either category can be detrimental to memory, learning and general feeling of wellness. Physical symptoms are the first reactions that the individual notices to a stressful event. People are different, but many are affected in similar ways to a stress induced state. Many suffer from a pounding or racing heart, which is in reference to the increased hormones released. With the influx of hormones it is not uncommon for the individual to experience nausea or abdominal pain. This is sometimes referred to as a hormone dump, when the individual suffers from nausea during or after a stressful event. Sweating, shortness of breath and diarrhea are also common physical symptoms of stress. As well as physical reactions there are a number of psychological or emotional symptoms to stress. As noted earlier when the cortisol is released into the bloodstream during a stressful event there can be marked mood swings (Miller, 2007). Emotional outbursts can also accompany and negative feelings. Many faced with a stressful event will feel as if they can not make a decision and have a lack of coping skills. This is because under pressure the brain has diverted all attention to surviving leaving the individual flooded with stimulus. The increased cortisol in the body interferes with the ability to think (Salposky, 2000). The brain typically reacts to the primary threat leaving other functioning lacking until the perceived threat has ended. Stress and its effects on the body: Not all stress is bad in fact it is not the stress state that is bad at all. Stress is your body’s reaction to a threat, which is a good thing. If your body did not react you would not be able to move or react in time to avoid harm or injury. Stress is a state in which the body allows more energy, which can work to the benefit of the individual. Example of how stress can give an edge is an athlete in a sporting event or a student waiting outside an examination room. That stress helps prepare the body for the feat that it is getting ready to undergo. Short periods of stress and the hormones produced by the brain can sharpen memory with the boost of energy that is given by the releasing hormones. This energy which is glucose can be used in productive manners in remembering and assisting the mind in categorizing the incoming data. This short-term surge of hormones and other chemicals produced by the body can allow the individual to have a sense of well being. Not only does the body undergo the physical changes that allow the person to sharpen their senses, it also improves memory. Stress and Memory: Short-term memory is often called the working or primary memory. It is the area of memory that is responsible for the complex cognitive processes such as logic, reasoning and learning. Information is stored in the short-term memory for seconds, minutes and up to about thirty minutes. After the period of time has elapsed some of the information is moved into long term memory. Many researchers have studied the effects of stress on memory. To expand on the earlier statement of deprivation of glucose to the hippocampus, it is apparent that damage can result causing impaired memory and learning abilities (Pawlak, 2005). In a study conducted with laboratory rats, scientists have found that when rats were subjected to ongoing stress there were physical changes within the brain. Chronic stress was found to alter the neurons in the hippocampus, causing a decrease in dendrite spines and NMDA receptors. The dendrite spines and NMDA receptors are two structures necessary for memory (Pawlak, 2005). It was found that the rat’s memory and learning ability was severely impaired. The hippocampus is responsible for recollections such as people, places and events and since the damage takes place within the hippocampus it is only reasonable to make the determination that short-term memory is negatively affected. Researchers have also questioned whether or not factors such as age and gender have any difference when evaluating the effects of stress on short-term memory. In a study conducted by Elzinga it was found that there are differences in the effects of Cortisol between gender and age (2005). In the study they found that men were more susceptible to the impact of Cortisol than women (Elzinga, 2005). Another very important factor found in a study conducted by Kleen, was rodents subjected to stress exhibited inhibitory reactions consistent with depression (2006). The rats were found to have decreased motivation and an increased adrenal size. The adrenal gland is located above the kidneys and is responsible for the production of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), Cortisol and adrenaline (Elzinga, 2005). In a recent study conducted at the University of Miami found that college students that experienced thoughts of painful or stressful situations, though not traumatic had an elevated level of cor tisol in their saliva (McCullough, 2007). This signifies that the brain quickly retrieves the previous data and stress event triggering the biochemical reaction. In another study it was found that individuals that were given a 30mg cortisol were less negative after a stressful event than their control group counterparts (Het, 2007). The control group was given a placebo and found to be in a worsened mood with symptoms of negativity after a stressful event. The cortisol was found to help protect mood and negativity during and immediately following a stressful event (Het, 2007). The production of the adrenal glands decreases over time and dwindles in older adults, therefore, causing fatigue and a lack of motivation (Brennan, 2006). As documented by numerous other sources it is a well-known fact that fatigue and lack of motivation can cause short term memory to suffer. On a lighter note, research has found that the Cortisol induced inhibition of short-term memory is reversible. Elzinga documented that though working memory was inhibited in the Stress State, the rats returned to normal functioning after only ten days of non-stress situations (2005). Signifying with appropriate coping and managing stress individuals can ensure their health. There are a number of ways in which individuals can reduce the effects of stress in their lives. Exercise, proper diet and relaxation techniques can help with releases for built up tension and stress for individuals. Exercise has proven very effective in stress reduction. Stress is a normal part of human life and the manner in which the body protects itself is miraculous. When all is working correctly there is not a problem with the additional hormones or neurotransmitters produced, but in excess can become problematic. Research has shown that the body’s reactions to chronic stress can cause a host of medical conditions as well as inhibition and problems with memory. The effects of stress can be minimized with appropriate actions and awareness. Many studies have addressed the benefits of exercise and relaxation techniques as ways to alleviate everyday stress experienced by people. Alleviating recurring stress can prevent it from accumulating to a point of chronic stress and therefore negatively affecting the body’s normal functioning. A positive step towards addressing stress related health and memory issues is understanding the process by which the body protects itself as well as when a person may be experiencing more than normal str ess levels. Results Analysis Analysis of Questionnaire During the initial phase of this study, participants were asked to complete a self-assessment questionnaire. The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain information regarding the perceived stress experienced by the participants. A total of 25 responses were recorded for each question. In a question relating to short-term memory, the test group made up 52 percent of the respondents while the control group made up the remaining 48 percent. Thirty-six percent of the total respondents reported their short-term memory as being good. Of those reporting good short-term memory, 16 percent came from the test group and 20 percent from the control group. Sixty percent of the participants reported short-term memory as average. Test and control groups broke down to 32 percent and 28 percent respectively. The remaining four percent self-reported poor short-term memory, all of which came from the test group. From a gender perspective, 48 percent of the participants were male and 52 perce nt were female. Twenty percent of the males and 16 percent of the females reported good short-term memory. Likewise, 28 percent of the males and 32 percent of the females reported average short-term memory. The remaining four percent reporting poor short-term memory came from the female group. In a second question relating to long-term memory, the results indicated that 24 percent of the test group and 20 percent of the control group reports long-term memory as good. Twenty-four percent of each group reported long-term memory as average. The remaining eight percent reporting poor long-term memory were from the test group. When breaking down according to gender, we found that the male participants reported long-term memory as good, average, and poor at a rate of 8%, 32%, and 8% respectively. Of the females reporting, 36 percent stated good long-term memory and 16 percent stated average long-term memory. No females reported poor long-term memory. In a question relating to stress, the possible answer choices ranged from never, sometimes, often, and all the time. Of the total responses, four percent reported never feeling stressed, 60 percent stated they sometimes feel stress, and eight percent advised they feel stressed often. Another four percent reported that they feel stressed all of the time. When analyzed for gender only, males reported feeling stressed only sometimes or often at a rate of 28 percent and 20 percent respectively. Females reported never feeling stressed or feeling stressed all of the time four percent for each category. Females most often reported sometimes feeling stress at a rate of 32 percent. The remaining 12 percent of females reported often feeling stress. Analysis of Pulse Rate. Group Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 1. The autonomic nervous system releases hormones during periods of experience stress. The most commonly observed autonomic effects seen in most individuals are an increased heart rate, and breathing. These two effects are largely controlled through the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. For the purposes of this study, how these systems contribute to an observable change in the pulse rate and blood pressure were examined. According to the literature, adrenocorticotrophin triggers the release of Cortisol, which organizes and facilitates the release of hormones and neurotransmitters during a stressful event (Luipen, 2005). Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream in response to stress, which causes the pulse and blood pressure to increase. The results of the study indicate that the pulse rate, prior to clinical treatment to stress averaged slightly more that 80 beats per minute. At the conclusion of the clinic treatment to stress, the test group showed a slight increase in pulse rate to between 90 and 100 beats per minute. The control group exhibited only a miniscule increase during this phase of the experimentation process. No significant differences were observed either prior to or post clinical treatment. Gender Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 1. The gender differences observed prior to memory clinic 1 showed no statistical significant differences among the means with regards to observed pulse rate. The female control group exhibited a pulse rate of 80 with the males being slightly higher. The test group for each gender showed males to be slightly less than 80 beat per minute and females to be approximately 90 beats per minute. There were no absolute significant differences among the groups. However strictly among females, the pre-test results were nearing statistical significance between the control and test group. Posttest results indicate that both female and male respondents measured pulse rate changed by an insignificant amount for the control groups. The test group presented a slightly more observable increase with males showing the greatest overall change in pulse rate. A statistically significant difference among the means was observed between the fema le control and test groups. No other significant differences were observed during this phase of testing. Group and Gender Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory clinic test 2 provided similar results. Pre-test females and males measured pulse rate was unremarkable from pre-test measurements prior to memory clinic 1. The post test results showed very minor changes among both the control and test groups in females and males. The results provided no statistically significant differences in any group or gender. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The results of the application of memory tests tend to provide limited support for the literature assertion that the induction of stressful events increases an individuals pulse rate (Panzarino, 2006). The differences observed between pre-test and post test measurements between the control and test groups provided no statistically significant results that fully support the hypothetical statement that stress causes the pulse rate to increase. However, the data does tend to show that stress and pulse rate may be correlated at some level and further studies may provide observations that are more significant. Analysis of Blood Pressure. Changes in blood pressure have also been enumerated as a physiological change in those subjected to stressful events. Blood pressure has also been associated with the release of hormones and neurotransmitters during a stressful event (Luipen, 2005). For the purposes of this study, a sphygmomanometer was used to measure the diastolic and systolic blood pressure of all participants. Group Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 1. According to the results of memory clinic 1, the mean diastolic blood pressure among both groups was approximately 80 mm/hg both pre-test and post test. No statistically significant differences among the means were observed. The systolic measurements were similar among the groups and again no statistically significant differences were observed. Group Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 2. When examining the results of memory clinic 2, the results mimicked those observed during memory clinic 1. Both pre-test and post-test diastolic measurements provided no significant change and were not significantly different from those observed during memory clinic 1 testing. Systolic blood pressure measurements were relatively unchanged from those observed in memory clinic 1, both pre-test and post-test. Gender Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 1. Gender differences were also analyzed to determine if stress affects males and females differently. According to the results of memory clinic test 1, both the female control and test groups showed little or no change in either diastolic or systolic blood pressure for pre-test and post-test measurements. Males tended to show little or no increase in both the control and test groups during this phase of testing also. No statistically significant differences among the means was found for either gender both pre-test and post-test. Gender Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory Clinic 2 yielded results very similar to memory clinic 1. Pre-test males showed a very insignificantly higher diastolic blood pressure measurement than did other categories. This same reading was also reflected in the systolic measurements, however no significant differences were observed for either gender or group. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The existing literature generally supports the conclusion that the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system affect the release of hormones that reflectively affect an individuals blood pressure when exposed to a stressful event (Panzarino, 2006). However, these same results were not found in this particular study. No significant changes were observed between the control and test groups. Likewise, no significant differences were observed between genders. Blood pressure did not change by a measurable amount when accounting for short-term or long-term memory. These results tend to support the assertion that we would reject a null hypothesis purporting that stress causes an increase in blood pressure. Again, additional testing would be necessary to exclude blood pressure as a reaction to stress exposure completely. Analysis of Salivary Cortisol Levels Cortisol has been purported to be the primary reagent contributing to release of hormones and neurotransmitters when an individual is presented with a stressful situation. Cortisol is released as a secondary product of the pituitary gland (Miller, 2007). The primary function of cortisol is to facilitate the release of blood sugar from the liver and stores of fat for energy sue during a stressful event. To examine the changes in cortisol levels in participants, an ELISA testing kit was used. Group Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Test 1. For memory clinic 1, the salivary cortisol levels were measured both pre-test and post-test. There were no significant differences among the means found before the testing for between the control and test groups. Post-test results showed a very slight increase in the control group, elevating from less than 2 ng/L to slightly more than 3 ng/L. Those participants subjected to the stressful event yielded a much more observable increase in salivary cortisol levels. Participants pre-test measurements were approximately 2.5 ng/L and significantly increased to approximately 6.5 ng/L. This change in salivary cortisol levels provided a significant difference among the means for the test group. Group Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory clinic 2 showed pre-test result that were similar to memory clinic 1. However, the post test results provided less dramatic changes. The test groups cortisol level increased from about 2 ng/L to just over 4 ng/L. These results provided no significant differences between the two means. Gender Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Tests. Gender differences were also analyzed. Salivary cortisol levels for females and males increased slightly for both control groups during memory clinic 1. The female and male test groups yielded significant differences. Female and male cortisol levels increased from between 2 ng/L and 3 ng/L to well above 6 ng/L. The results of memory clinic 2 also showed increase in salivary cortisol levels. Female test participants showed a significant increase in cortisol levels after subjected to the stressful event. Male test subjects showed an increase but the results were not significantly different among the means. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The results of the salivary cortisol measurements tend to support the generally accepted literary conclusion that cortisol levels and stress are positively correlated. An increase in exposure to stress tends to cause and increase in cortisol release. For the purposes of this study, measurement of salivary cortisol provided the most conclusive evidence to support the hypothesis that stress affects memory. Results of Memory Clinic Tests Group Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 1. During memory clinic test 1, each participant was given 3 minutes to memorize a series of handouts containing pictures words and numbers. The test group completed a simulated stressful event while the control group remained at ease. At the conclusion of eight minutes, the participant was asked to fill in the missing element from each of the handouts. These results were then analyzed and recorded. These results indicated that of the test group, participants were able to correctly identify approximately 5 of the missing elements correctly. The control group, who rested, was able to correctly identify slightly less than 7 missing elements. There appeared to be no significant differences between the means of the two groups. Group Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 2. Two weeks after memory clinic 1, memory clinic 2 was conducted to determine if any differences existed in memory retention among the control and test groups. The same testing criterion was followed except for the time allowed for handout review. According to the finding of memory clinic 2, both the control and test groups scored almost identically in correctly identifying the missing elements from the handouts. Each groups scores clustered around identifying two out of twenty missing elements. Gender Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 1. During this analysis, gender differences were also examined. During memory clinic 1 the female control group scored more than six out of twenty missing elements while the test group who were subjected to the stressful event, scored only four missing elements correctly. The male control group for this same clinical testing phase correctly identified approximately seven missing elements. The male test group identified six of the elements correctly. No significant differences among the means were observed for the female and male groups as observed by gender. In addition, no significant differences were noted between the gender variables. Gender Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 2. Gender differences for memory clinic 2 provided notable differences from memory clinic 1. The female control group identified less than two of the missing elements, which was almost identical to the finding of the female test group. Males scored slightly more correct answers than did the corresponding females, however the reduction in memory between the memory clinics decreased by similar levels. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The facts observed during the clinical tests indicate that those participants subjected to a stressful event immediately before completing the memory test scored lower than those who were not subjected to stress. Both males and females scored similarly, indicating that no differences exist in memory as a result of gender. There were some minor differences in the absolute numbers of memory retention, but the differences were minute and could just as easily be explained by chance. According to Salposky, the results found in this study are comparable with other literature, regarding the fact that cortisol can in fact interfere with the ability to thin and function (2000). Limitations of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of physical and mental stress on both short and long term memory. The current study was comprised of twenty participants, which provided an adequate number for researchers to obtain a reasonable level of validity and reliability. However, the small sample size provided little additional data that could be analyzed using common statistical techniques. In addition, this studys goal was to test the correlation of pulse rate, blood pressure, and salivary cortisol levels to experience stress. The literature suggests that age may have a significant role in experienced or perceived stress levels and subsequently affect those physiological elements that were being tested (Elzinga, 2005). The demographic characteristics collected for this study did not include a provision for age measurement. Likewise, it could be assumed that original fitness levels might play a significant role when physical stress is applied as a simulator for a stressful event. Original fitness levels were not calculated nor were variables such as sports activity or body mass index, or body fat levels. This type of data may have been useful for applying a consistent level of stress based on the original conditioning of the participant. Race and/or ethic background should also be included to ascertain if any differences exist among these groups. If a larger, more diverse sample were used, variables such as occupation should also be included. Most literature suggests that some occupations maintain a higher stress level on a consistent basis. For example, the stress experienced by police officers or air traffic controllers will probably vary considerably from that of an office worker or student. The last limitation also stems from the original size of the sample. The geographic location of participants may vary depending on the regions of the country from which they were drawn. Personality types or personal characteristics may als o be included since some literature suggests that personality types differ in their perceived level of stress (Grant Langan-Fox, 2007). Suggestions For Additional Research Subsequent studies for additional research into the physiological reactions to stress should include a larger number of participants. In order to achieve a confidence level of 95 percent the sample size should approximate 387 participants. This sample size would provide data that would allow a greater range of statistical calculations and a more intense level of analysis that would lend itself to stronger validity and reliability. A larger sample size would also allow the results to be generalized to the population. Secondly, any further research should include an increased number of demographic variables. For example, race, ethnicity, age, occupation, and income levels should be included to determine if a statistically significant difference exists among other variables. Fitness level, sports activity, body mass index, and body fat should also be measured in addition to a basic categorization of personality types. Another suggestion for further research may include a series of memory clinic tests at selected intervals to determine at what point memory begins to decline after exposure to a stressful event. According to the current study, memory declined after a period of two weeks, however, the decline was not determined to be significant. Perhaps follow-up studies should be completed in two-week intervals until such time as the memory loss becomes significantly different from original results. Different types of stress should also be examined in future studies to determine if memory retention as a result of physical stress differs from emotional stress. Participants could be shown images or interviews of traumatic events such as school shootings, war scenes or impoverished children. Eustress versus distress could also be examined. Three groups could be established. The control group not subjected to treatment, the second group exposed to a distressful event and the third groups exposed to positive or typically happy events such as a wedding, graduation, or birth of a loved one. Blood sugar levels could be tested in addition to cortisol levels. In addition, individual data recorded to determine the percentage change experienced for participants. This type of data collection would yield far more significant results than taken from a group as a whole. The individual data could be collapsed as necessary provides meaningful results. Conclusion According to the results of this study, pulse rate and blood pressure are positively related to stress. However, stress does not significantly contribute to pulse rate and blood pressure. Cortisol levels do appear to have a greater impact when an individual is exposed to stressful event. The research indicates that cortisol is a positive release to the body by facilitating the release of hormones and neurotransmitters (Luipen, 2005). Persons exposed to short periods of stress exhibit an increased level of hormonal activity produced by the brain that can sharpen memory and energy levels. This type of activity is imperative for the body to prepare for the fight or flight response when exposed to danger. However, chronic exposure to stress can lead to an increased dependency for the demand of cortisol which can ultimately lead to long-term health issues such as hypertension and heart disease (National Institute of Health, 2002). The results of this study indicate a correlation between Cortisol levels, stress and memory. Short-term memory appears to be affected at a more significant level than does long-term memory. Short-term memory or primary memory is responsible for the complex cognitive processes such as logic and decision making. Information is stored in short-term memory for up to about 30 minutes. This type of information is critical for understanding the implication for exposure to acute and chronic stress in particular occupations. How stress impacts decision making can be critical for those exposed to inherent imminent dangers such as gunfire or car crashes. If researchers are able to link the variables, this can ultimately lead to changes in training for military, law enforcement, or even automobile drivers. References Brennan, Pl, Schutte, K., Moore, R. (2006). Long-Term Patterns and Predictors of Successful Stressor Resolution in Later Life. International Journal of Stress Management, 13(3), 253-272. Elzinga, B., Roelofs, K. (2005). Cortisol-Induced Impairments of Working memory Require Acute Sympathetic Activation. Behavioural neuroscience, 119(1), 98-103. Gunnar, M. , Quevedo, K. The Neurobiology of stress and Development. Annual Review of Psychology. Palo Alto: 2007. Vol. 58 pg. 145 Grant, S. Langan-Fox, J. (2007). Personality and the Occupational Stressor-Strain Relationship: The Role of the Big Five. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(1), 20-33. Het, S., Wolf, O. (2007). Mood Changes in Response to Psychosocial Stress in Healthy Young Women: Effects of Pretreatment With Cortisol. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121(1), 11-20. Kleen, J., Sitomer, M., Killeen, P., Conrad, C. (2006). Chronic Stress Impairs Spatial memory and Motivation for Reward without Disrupting Motor Ability and Motivation to Explore. Behavioural Neuroscience, 120(4), 842-851. Lupien, S. Psychoneruoendocrinology, McGill University. 2005; Vol 30: pp. 225-242 McCullough, M., Orsulak, P., Brandon, A., Akers, L. (2007). Rumination, Fear, and Cortisol: An In Vivo Study of Interpersonal Transgressions. Health Psychology, 26(1), 126-132. Miller, G.E. (Nov 2002). Chronic Psychological Stress and the Regulation of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines: A Glucocorticoid-Resistance Model. Health Psychology, Vol 21, No. 6. Miller, G., Chen, E., Zhou, E. (2007). If It Goes Up, Must It Come Down? Chronic Stress and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis in Humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 25-45. National Institute of Health. â€Å"Stress System Malfunction Could Lead to Serious, Life Threatening Disease†. NIH, Backgrounder: Sept 2002. Pawlak, R, Rao, B. Melchor, JP. Et all. â€Å"Tissue Plasminogen Activator and Plasminogen Mediate Stress-Induced Decline of Neuronal and Cognitive Functions in the Mouse hippocampus†. Proc National Academy Science USA. 2005 Dec 13; 102(50): 18201-6 Panzarino, P. â€Å"What is Stress†. Stress, Hormone and Weight Gain. MedNet Publications. 2006. Sapolsky, Robert; Lewis C. Krey, and Bruce S. McEwen (25 September 2000). The Neuroendocrinology of Stress and Aging: The Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis. Science of Aging Knowledge Environment 38: 21. Stress. Neuroanatomy. Accessed 14 March 2007 [neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/coursebook/neuro4(2).pdf] University of Pittsburgh. (2006) What is the Pituitary Gland? Department of Neurological Surgery. Research Papers on The effects of Stress on Short Term MemoryThree Concepts of PsychodynamicGenetic EngineeringThe Spring and AutumnMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductHip-Hop is ArtOpen Architechture a white paperResearch Process Part OneQuebec and CanadaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use

A Primer on Arc Elasticity

A Primer on Arc Elasticity One of the problems with the standard formulas for elasticity that are in many freshman texts is the elasticity figure you come up with is different depending on what you use as the start point and what you use as the endpoint. An example will help illustrate this. When we looked at Price Elasticity of Demand, we calculated the price elasticity of demand when the price went from $9 to $10 and demand went from 150 to 110 was 2.4005. But what if we calculated what the price elasticity of demand when we started at $10 and went to $9? So wed have: Price(OLD)10Price(NEW)9QDemand(OLD)110QDemand(NEW)150 First wed calculate the percentage change in quantity demanded: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [150 - 110] / 110 (40/110) 0.3636 (Again we leave this in decimal form) Then wed calculate the percentage change in price: [Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / Price(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [9 - 10] / 10 (-1/10) -0.1 We then use these figures to calculate the price-elasticity of demand: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) We can now fill in the two percentages in this equation using the figures we calculated earlier. PEoD (0.3636)/(-0.1) -3.636 When calculating a price elasticity, we drop the negative sign, so our final value is 3.636. Obviously, 3.6 is a lot different from 2.4, so we see that this way of measuring price elasticity is quite sensitive to which of your two points you choose as your new point, and which you choose as your old point. Arc elasticities are a way of removing this problem. When calculating Arc Elasticities, the basic relationships stay the same. So when were calculating Price Elasticity of Demand we still use the basic formula: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) However, how we calculate the percentage changes differ. Before when we calculated Price Elasticity of Demand, Price Elasticity of Supply,  Income Elasticity of Demand, or Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand wed calculate the percentage change in Quantity Demand the following way: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) To calculate an arc-elasticity, we use the following formula: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 This formula takes an average of the old quantity demanded and the new quantity demanded on the denominator. By doing so, we will get the same answer (in absolute terms) by choosing $9 as old and $10 as new, as we would choosing $10 as old and $9 as new. When we use arc elasticities we do not need to worry about which point is the starting point and which point is the ending point. This benefit comes at the cost of a more difficult calculation. If we take the example with: Price(OLD)9Price(NEW)10QDemand(OLD)150QDemand(NEW)110 We will get a percentage change of: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 [[110 - 150] / [150 110]]*2 [[-40]/[260]]*2 -0.1538 * 2 -0.3707 So we get a percentage change of -0.3707 (or -37% in percentage terms). If we swap the old and new values for old and new, the denominator will be the same, but we will get 40 in the numerator instead, giving us an answer of the 0.3707. When we calculate the percentage change in price, we will get the same values except one will be positive and the other negative. When we calculate our final answer, we will see that the elasticities will be the same and have the same sign. To conclude this piece, Ill include the formulas so you can calculate the arc versions of price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply, income elasticity, and cross-price demand elasticity. We recommend calculating each of the measures using the step-by-step fashion we detail in the previous articles. New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Supply PEoS (% Change in Quantity Supplied)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Supplied) [[QSupply(NEW) - QSupply(OLD)] / [QSupply(OLD) QSupply(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Income Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Income) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Income) [[Income(NEW) - Income(OLD)] / [Income(OLD) Income(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand of Good X PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded of X)/(% Change in Price of Y) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] Notes and Conclusion So now you can calculate elasticity using a simple formula as well as using the arc formula. In a future article, we will look at using calculus to compute elasticities. If youd like to ask a question about the elasticities, microeconomics, macroeconomics or any other topic or comment on this story, please use the feedback form.

Susan Schwartz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Susan Schwartz - Essay Example Term used for determining the target market is â€Å"market segmentation† (Daniel, 2012). Market segmentation can be defined as a process of â€Å"dividing a market into smaller groups of buyers with distinct needs, characteristics, behaviors, etc. that might require separate products or marketing mixes† (Bragg, n.d.). When the target market is to be determined for a certain product, its traits need to be studied first. It might be useful either for people of a certain age group or all age groups, a certain culture or all cultures, a certain religion or all religions, and a certain ethnicity or all ethnicities. These factors need to be considered. Three factors that play a pivotal role in the selection of target market are the size and growth of segment, its structural attractiveness, and the goals and resources of business. Modification of a product design to expand the consumer base by incorporating the requirements of a lot of communities makes the target market subj ective. â€Å"I dont know the key to success, but the key to failure is trying to please everybody† (Cosby cited in Bragg,

Freedom of speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Freedom of speech - Essay Example The law should not limit them from using the best tools available, which is what currently exists. This ban is not only discriminatory but unreasonable. It assumes that the persons involved in vandalism are under the age of 21. Further, it suggests that persons in that age group are not able to decipher what constitutes wholesome, responsible and proper behavior from what does not. This ban is an act of suppression of the right to progress beyond limits placed by the authorities. It forces persons under the age of 21 to break laws which hinders on their progress and prevents them from expressing themselves in a wholesome manner. In so doing it casts them in the light of being law breakers. It needlessly casts a level of guilt on that age group and reduces them to the level of criminals when they are really not engaged in wrongdoing. If freedom of speech is to remain the right of all this discriminatory and suppressive ban needs to be removed as it cuts at the core of creativity. The youths should not be made to pay in any way for societal problems such as that which caused the ban. Reference Find Law (n.d.). Vincenty v. Bloomberg. Retrieved from: http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1070582.html

Social Media Technology Essay Example for Free

Social Media Technology Essay 1.0Introduction Bhanot (2012) defined social media technology as the â€Å"media for social interaction that can be used in web based and mobile technologies†. In addition, web based and mobile technologies can make the communication into interactive conversation. The most popular social media among the users are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube and so on. Besides, the social media technology is not for the public users to interact other user only but the social media technology provides internal social media to the organizations such as Salesforce. com (Andzulis et al., 2012). Social media is a new trend in this era. It is because social media is an easy way to get information, knowledge, news and others that useful to the users than conventional media such as newspaper, magazines and so on. In addition, the information in the social media is not expensive and easily to access compared than the conventional media (Bhanot, 2012). The statistic shows that the users of the social media had been increased year by year. Facebook has more than 175 million users that are registered in 2009 but has been increased to 845 million users that are registered while Twitter has over 465 million users that are registered. According to Kaplan and Haenlien (2010), the history of social media was starting 33 years ago. In 1979, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis from Duke University had been created â€Å"Usenet† which is social media that allowed users to post public messages. Besides, Bruce and Susan Abelson had created â€Å"Open Diary† which is an early social media. The â€Å"Open Diary† is a community of the online diary writers. Social media technology is closely related to Web 2.0 and user-generated content. According to Kaplan and Haenlien (2010), Web 2.0 is a platform where the social media is evolving. Web 2.0 allows the users to interact and collaborate among the users in social media. Web 2.0 is the platform where the users can share the information with other users and the other users can continuously edit or modified the information. According to Constantinides and Fountain (2008), Web 2.0 is a collection of open-source which has the knowledge and market power of the users in business and social process and Web 2.0 allow the users to share, disseminate and editing the informal content. User generated content is refer to media contents in the media technologies. Web 2.0 allows creation and exchange of user-generated content in a virtual community. Web 2.0 can be classified into five main categories which are blogs, social network, communities, forum / bulletin boards and content aggregators (Constantinides Fountain, 2008). Nowadays, the business method has been changed compared than the traditional method which is face to face in selling or buying. The world has been changing and technology was evolved. The method of business change into a virtual selling or virtual buying compared than traditional business method. In this information technology era, organizations are regularly to make their business using internet or online network. There are two types of business that use the internet or online network as a medium for running their business which is an electronic business (E-Business) and E-Commerce. E-Commerce is the process of buying and selling of product or services that use the internet or online network. E-Business is like E-commerce but E-business is more than E-Commerce. E-Business is not just buying and selling product or services using the internet but E-business are the wide perspective of E-Commerce. E-Business includes servicing the customer, cooperating with business partner, supply chain management, and process with electronic transaction. Nowadays, organizations are trying to identify the new way to maximize their profit using social media technology platform. The behaviour of the workers and the managers to maximized profit can be changed with the use of social media technologies (Turban Volonino, 2012). Social media technology can help organizations to maintain and improve competitiveness in the industry (Levin, Hansen, Laverie, 2012). In addition, social media are use by wide area of business includes human resources, supply chain management, marketing and sales and others area that used social media technology (Turban Volonino, 2012). The organizations also can use the social media technology to their marketing research plans. Nowadays, many organizations have realized the usefulness of the social media technology in running their business and they try to adapt this new technology slowly. According to Andzulis et al. (2012), the Ford Motor had hired 40 employees that are social media practitioners to promote their new car model which is Ford Focus. The employees had been given opportunity to drive test the car and the video have been uploaded in Facebook and other social media website. 2.0Risks of Social Media Technology in Business Enterprise The organizations or firms must understand the risk in using social media technology in their business. The risk using social media as a platform in business is greater than a business that uses traditional ways (Boz Unal, 2011). There are many hidden risks in using social media and the organization should realize the risks of the social media before implement it. The organization must realize that the employees can abuse the social media technology with access to their favourite social media and chatting all the time with their friends. From the recent research, 76 percent of the respondents had access their Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter at least once a day (Dutta, 2012). Some organization had blocked the social media and sacking their employees when the employees had been caught because of accessing the social networking sites at work. By blocking the social media make the employees cannot get the information and knowledge that are required in their job. In addition, the employees cannot access the social media communities and the employees cannot share and received any information, knowledge or experience in the social media. Thus, the productivity in the organization can be decreased. The risk that can make negative impact to the organization is when people start to say the negative or untrue things about the organization. People are easily trust to the untrue things from the unreliable source. According to Boz Unal (2011), word of mouth is the influential thing and its become more influential to the people in the social media technology. The customer or the competitor may review the organization in negative writing about their product or their services. For example, people give their negative opinion about Proton and their car new model which is Proton Preve in the social media network. A picture of Proton Preve was uploaded in the social media. The picture is about the people that are not satisfied with the quality of this car. Furthermore, this issue discussed on the forums on the website and many of them give negative opinions about the quality of this car. This may affect the persons decision whether to buy that car or not. Indirectly, this may affect the organization in terms of sales or profit. The other risk of the social media technologies is the sharing information with other users on social networking sites (Boz Unal, 2011). Besides, the employee may make a mistake by giving their opinion about their organization in social media. The confidential information about the organization can be leaked when the employees share their opinions in the social media. Besides, the competitor can learn the relationship between the clients and the organization (Giamanco Gregoire, 2012). The competitor will know the early-stage opportunities and try to snatch the client from the organizations. 3.0Productivity of Work by Using Social Media Technology One of the power using social media is the social media technology can enhance productivity in business enterprise. Using social media technology such as Facebook or twitter can enhance productivity among the employee by sharing the knowledge and experiences. The knowledge that the employees get from the social media can help others employees to solve problems (Iyer et al., 2011). From the research that had been conducted, the employees used the social media at work are objectively to support their organization’s goals and build up the name of their organizations (Dutta, 2012). After that, a research had been conducted, 72 percent of organizations are using social media as medium in their business and 90 percent of the organizations had reported that they had benefited by using social media technology (Social Media Enhances Productivity, 2012). This result can be a sign that the social media can be a channel to communicate among the employees. From Dutta (2012), the advantage using social media is easy to access to the information because of the speed to get the information had been increased It is because the social media can save time to seek information and then can enhance productivity in the workplace. Besides, the social media such as Twitter can help the employees to choose an alternative way to go to the offices when there is a traffic jam. This can help the employees to go to the office on time and indirectly can enhance the productivity of the organization. The relationship with the customer can be built by using social media technology (Iyer et al., 2011). This will help the organizations to analyse and learns the problems of the products or services when the customer tells their experience when using the products or the services. After that, the organizations will know the customers experiences when using the organization’s products or services. The relationship can make the customer loyal to the organizations. It is because with a strong relationship between customer and the organization, the customers will satisfied with the products of the services of the organizations. Furthermore, in the customer service department, the social media technology can save cost and time the organizations and the customer. The customers just use their social media such as Facebook to ask question or make a complaint about the product or the services. The customer does not waste their time to meet the customer service face to face but the customer services can answer or explain the customer problem easily using social media technology. For example, Celcom Axiata Berhad is a Malaysia’s mobile telecommunication company that uses this social media channel to interact with their customers. Celcom Axiata Berhad had two types of online customer service which is on their website and in their Facebook. Celcom customer services can answer directly to inquiries from the customer using their online customer service. By using social media technology, Celcom customer services spend less time answering calls from the customer. In addition, the Celcom customer services can reduce their time to read and composing email by using social media technology. From the research that had been done, the customer service can reduce 25 to 30 percent of their time by answering emails from the customer (Bughin, Chui, Manyika, 2012) and can free their time by 7 to 8 percent to do other works (Social Media Enhances Productivity, 2012). 4.0Social Media Technology as the Promotion and Marketing Strategy Normally, the conventional advertising is in one way conversation (Wetsch, 2012). Nowadays, it has been changed in the advertising on the social media. Advertising on the social media can allow two ways conversation compared than conventional advertising that involve one way conversation only. The customer can give their opinion straight forward to the organization about the advertising using social media technology. The customer can communicate directly to the organization about the promotion or advertising (Mangold Faulds, 2009). Today, the organization had realized the benefits using social media technology. Social media technology is the new marketing for the organization to reach the communities of customers that they are targeting. Instead of that, the organization had used social media strategy in their marketing plan. According to Boz and Unal (2011), it is a powerful strategy when the organizations use social media platform to promote the organization business. Nowadays, many organizations use social media technology to promote their new products or new services. The organization use social media to promote their business because it can save a lot of money and can save time. Before this, the organizations promote their business or advertising their business in mass media such as television, radio, newspaper, magazine and others. The advertising or promotions that use mass media actually more costly compared than using social media. Besides, the advertisings that use television, radio, newspapers and magazine is not really relevant anymore in this modern era. For example, Al-Ikhsan use Facebook platform to promote their new products. Recently, Al-Ikhsan had their warehouse sales and they use social media technology to tell the people about the warehouse sale. Thousands of people were coming to the Al-Ikhsan warehouse sales. This situation occurs because the customers have wide access to the information by using social media (Mangold Faulds, 2009). Besides, the word of mouth communication is the most powerful thing in social media to influence someone. The users of social media have the capability to tell hundreds of the people at the same time. Face to face communication and mouth of word communication had less impact compared than social media (Mangold Faulds, 2009). This will be the proof how the social media technology can successfully help the organization to make publicity and their promotions. 5.0Recommendations The organizations must have a backup plan to prepare the risks in implementing social media technologies in their business. The organizations must not avoid using social media technologies in their business because of the risks. But, they should think to overcome this problem. In addition, a social media technology gives many benefits to an organization and it can maximize the profit and revenues of the organization. There are several recommendations to the organization to overcome the problems of risk in using social media technology and to improve organizations reputation. The organization should develop a strategic planning to overcome this problem. The organization should understand how to interact with customer or clients when using the social media. It is because the reputation can be affected by how the organization interact with the social media. Besides, the organization should advise their employees to communicate ethically and show respect to others when using social media technology. The organizations can enhance their employee’s productivity by using social media as a platform to interact with their customers. The organization should improve the system of customer services using the social media so that the productivity can be enhanced. The productivity can be increased when the employees gave their feedback quickly to the customers that ask a question in social media. The customers will satisfied and they felt that they are appreciated by the organization. So, the customers will be loyal to the organization. The communication will be improved between the organization and the customer when the organizations implement the social media technologies as the platform to approach their customers. The social media are new channel to make promotions or to advertise a business. The cost to advertise in mass media is actually higher and very expensive. The organization should consider using social media as a new channel to promote their business. It is because the cost is very cheaper than using mass media to promote their business. Besides, the organization can directly interact with the customer and can directly ask the customer opinion. When the organizations use the media mass as the channel to promote their business, they do not know how the readers or the viewers respond when seeing their advertisement. Thus, the organization must realize the advantages using social media as the channel in promoting their business compared to other channels. The organization should analyse whether the social media are successfully implemented or not. Besides, the organization can analyse their target market using social media platform. The preferences of the customer can be accessed easily with social media technology. Thus, the organization would understand the preference of their customer. In addition, the organization enables to get new market target and stay focused to the existing target market. It is important to build the relationship with the customer. In return, the customer would be loyal to the organization and try to promote to their family and friends when they are satisfied with the services of the organization. Instead of analysing the customers, the organization should analyse about their competitor and their competitor target market. It is useful information to make the organizations survive in the business and to maximise profit and the revenues of the organization. The important thing is the organization should make su re that social media aligned with the goal, objectives and vision of the organization. 6.0Conclusion In the information technology era, the users of the social media had increased year by year. Thus, the organizations should use this opportunity to implement the social media in business. Furthermore, social media is the important platform for an organization to survive in the business. Many organizations had been realized the importance of social media in their business and they try to implement social media technology in their business. The traditional method in business is not relevant anymore in this modern era. The organization cannot ignore the how powerful the social media technology because the social media contain the knowledge, information and experience of the people. All the information can be sought in the social media and it is faster to get the information. Besides, the social media give many benefits to the organization compared to conventional media. The benefits using social media technology include in recruitment, customer relationship, enhance the organization productivity, enhance decision making among the employees and in the marketing plan of the organization. But, the organization should realize the risk in using social media. The organizations must have a backup plan to prepare the risks in implementing social media technology in their business. The organizations must not avoid using social media technology in their business. Thus, the organization should develop a strategic plan to avoid the risk. The risk using social media just like a small part but the organization can get a huge of return by using the social media technology. References Andzulis, J. M., Panagopoulus, N. G., Rapp, A. (2012). A Review of Social Media and Implications for the Sales Process. Journal of Personal Selling Sales Management, Vol XXXII, No. 3 , 305-316. Bhanot, S. (2012). Use of Social Media by Companies to Reach their Customer. SIES Journal of Management,Vol. 8 (1) , 47-55. Boz, M., Unal, D. (2011). Successful Promotion Strategy in Destination Tourism Marketing Through Social Media; Queensland, Australia Case. Regional Science Conference with International Participation , 467-472. Bughin, J., Chui, M., Manyika, J. (2012). Capturing business value with social technologies. McKinsey Quarterly, Issue 4 , 72-80. Constantinides, E., Fountain, S. J. (2008). Web 2.0: Conceptual Foundations and Marketing. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 9 , 231-244. Dutta, S. (2012, Winter). Enterprsee 2.0: Let the Revolution Begin! Rotman Magazine , pp. 66-71. Giamanco, B., Gregoire, K. (2012, Jul/Aug). Tweet Me, Friend Me, Make Me Buy . Harvard Business Review , pp. 88-93. Iyer, B., Parise, S., Raiaqopal, S., Davenport, T. H. (2011). Putting Social Media to Work at Cognizant. Ivey Business Journal, Vol. 75 Issue 4 , 18-21. Kaplan, A. M., Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the World, Unite! The Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53 (1) , 59-68. Levin, M. A., Hansen, J. M., Laverie, D. A. (2012). Toward Understanding New Sales Employees Participation in Marketing-Related Technology: Motivation, Voluntariness and Past Performance. Journal of Personal Selling Sales Management, Vol XXXII, no. 3 , 379-393. Mangold, W. G., Faulds, D. J. (2009). Social Media: The New Hybrid Element of the Promotion Mix. Business Horizons, Issue 52 , 357—365. Social Media Enhances Productivity. (2012, Nov/Dec). Electric Perspectives , Vol. 37 Issue 6 , pp. 17-18. Turban, E., Volonino, L. (2012). Information Technology for Management 8th Edition. John Wiley Sons. Wetsch, L. R. (2012). A Personal Branding Assignment Using Social Media. Journal of Advertising Education , 30-36.

Dropouts and CTE Essay -- Resarch Career Technical Education Essays

Dropouts and CTE In October 2000, the overall picture of high school dropouts had changed little since the late 1980s (Kaufman et al. 2001): For every 100 young adults enrolled in high school in October 1999, 5 had left school without completing a program; of 34.6 million U.S. young adults aged 16-24, 3.8 million—almost 11 percent—had not completed high school and were not enrolled. Some studies have shown that students in schools with a concentration of multiple risk factors (e.g., large schools, large classes, high poverty, inner city location) have less than one chance in two of graduating from high school; furthermore, the economic costs of dropping out have increased as time goes on (Castellano et al. 2001). Adjusting for 50 years of inflation, young male college graduates at the end of the 1990s earned about one and half times as much as their peers in 1949, but the young male high school dropout earned less than half as much as his counterpart. The conventional wisdom that CTE is one solution to the problem of dropouts is made clear in one statewide evaluation of STW (Schug and Western 1999). In telephone interviews, most randomly selected school district curriculum directors reported a belief that STW had beneficial effects on student outcomes like high school completion, but all 45 agreed that there was not reliable information on achievement, attendance, or completion rates. Another statewide study (Brown 2000) noted that state systems for collecting and reporting Tech Prep outcomes were poorly developed, perhaps because they were not required in the Tech Prep Education Act (Title III-E of Perkins II). So it would seem that the question remains: Is CTE one solution to the dropout problem or not? Early Statis... ... the Balance: An Analysis of High School Persistence, Academic Achievement, and Postsecondary Destinations. St. Paul: National Research Center for Career and Technical Education, University of Minnesota, 2001. (ED 461 721) http://www.nccte.org/publications/index.asp Publications and Materials: Case Studies. Atlanta, GA: High Schools That Work, Southern Regional Education Board, n.d. http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/publications/pubindex.asp Schug, M. C., and Western, R. D. School to Work in Wisconsin: Inflated Claims, Meager Results. Report 12, No. 1. Milwaukee: Wisconsin Policy Research Institute, 1999. (ED 427 246) Stern, D.; Dayton, C.; and Raby, M. Career Academies: Building Blocks for Reconstructing American High Schools. Berkeley: Career Academy Support Network, University of California, 2000. (ED 455 445) http://casn.berkeley.edu/buildingblocks.html

Sumary of Android vs Windows

Summary of the article: Windows phone 7 developments for android developers A big part of the process of designing a phone application is to establish a storage method for important data the application will create. The windows platform does not offer a API database such as Microsoft SQL Server or SQLite, instead windows encourages developers to store information on the cloud similar to how a website operates. Developers that do not want to go that route have two options. They could use windows Azure or utilize other commercial cloud source. Also android developers could use an open source outgoing project called CODEPLEX or store the data internally and later load it up using LINQ (language integrated language). Storing information internally is really easy on a windows platform in such a way that it almost eliminates completely the need of a database. Windows phone platform allows you to store settings and users preferences through the isolated storage interface this way it will easily accessible uniquely for the device the application installed. One of the mayor advantages of the windows platform from androids platform is the layout of the tools. Android developer’s tool kit lacks of a proper layout tools in contrast windows platform have a robust tools layout that are easily and inexpensive for a developer to obtain. Windows main objective with these tools is to make the development process of application a fast and clean process. Windows phone 7 introduces a new take on phones operating system and the differences between the android operating system are mostly skin deep.

Chain Gear Limited. Objectives, Mission, Products Essay

Chain & Gear Limited is a new company that will provide high quality bicycle accessories. Chain & Gear Limited is scheduled to start operations on January, 2014. The company will provide four types of accessories that include saddle bags, Led Bicycle, Air pump light and iPhone bike mount. These products will help improve the performance and safety of bicycles Chain & Gear Limited will target small and medium sized companies, wholesalers, retailers and within the Northern part of Michigan including Detroit and surrounding areas as well as Southern Ontario. Our products will be positioned as high-end accessories. Currently there are no other companies selling these accessories in the Northern part of Michigan. The potential market for company’s product is promising. Currently there are over two million bicycles owners in Michigan. We are seeking  £ 1 million to be used in the production, packaging, marketing and overhead as well as for short term capital needs. The company plan on achieving direct sales of  £100,000 in the target market in the first year of operation. The company plan to market their products aggressively in order to realize high profits. However, the company has ceased selling ‘2i’ bike helmet. Objectives Sales of  £1,000,000 in June 2014 and  £1.5 million by December, 2014 Gross margin higher than 75% Mission                  Chain & Gear Limited offers reliable, high-quality products. The company must maintain financial balance, charging affordable prices to their customers. Company Summary                  Chain & Gear Limited is a new company that will be providing unique accessories such as saddle bag, iPhone bike mount, LED Bicycle Air Pump Lights and coffee cup holder. As a company grows it will focus improving its product to keep abreast with technology. It will also form alliances with other companies (Petrie, 2008: p12).  The total start-up expense which includes legal costs, stationery, logo design and related expenses comes to  £1 million.  £800,000 will be raised through your bank and the remaining  £200,000 will come from personal savings. Start-up assets that are required include  £50,000 in short-term assets like office furniture and  £150,000 in initial cash will be used to handle the first few months of operations since the sales and accounts receivables plays through the cash flow.. The firm’s offices are located on lower side of Ann Arbour, Michigan. Products                  Chain & Gear Limited offers high quality new products that will change the structure of bicycles and also improve iPhone bike mount: The iPhone Bike Mount for iPhone allows one to attach an iPhone to a handlebar of the bicycle such that one can use GPS or an appropriate app to track one’s position, speed or distance travelled while one is still riding. The iPhone Bike Mount is a weather proof case that has a welded touch-sensitive membrane that lets your iPhone be completely protected from effects of the weather and still be fully functional. The inside of the iPhone Bike mount case is lined with silicones that assist in shock resistance. The iPhone Bike Mount pivots so that you can use the iPhone in a portrait or in a landscape mode. It has a membrane protected openings for front and rear camera lenses that lets one take video or pictures while still riding. It also have a recess in a silicone liner that accepts charge cables which is suitable for stems and handlebars with a diameter of 36 mm (1.6†) or smaller.It has a case dimensions of 13.2 Ãâ€" 8 Ãâ€" 3 cm (5.8 Ãâ€" 3.2 Ãâ€" 0.7†), case weight of 90 g (3.0 oz.) and a bracket height of 1 cm (0.4†) (Weston,2011: p.27). Saddle bags                  Saddle bags carry tire inflation kits, tools, spare tubes, , keys, and the like. Saddle bags offer easy mounting, convenient access and an out-of-the-way position underneath your saddle. Saddle bags are sleek and small. They are ideal multiplicity of cycling styles such as a weekend warrior, hard-core commuter, touring expert, both on-road and off-road. They have features such as Rear Zipper Closure, Inner polyester pocket on the side, Safety light attachment, post attachment, Inner mesh pocket on lid, Stiffener along top and bottom of bag, Reflective elements on lid, three Adjustable side Velcro straps for saddle bags attachments and one Velcro rear strap for the seat. They are available in black and blue colour, Small, Medium and Large. Their measurement is (H x W x D): (S) 4.75†³ x 2†³ x 2.75†³, (M) 5.5†³ x 2†³ x 3†³, (L) 6†³ x 2.75†³ x 3.5†³, weight: (S) 1.05 oz., (M) 1.2 oz., (L) 1.4 oz. And fabrics: S70DL Polyamide siliconized / 210D Diamond Rip stop PU coated Polyamide (Weston, 2011: p.23). LED Bicycle Air Pump Lights                  LED Bicycle Air Pump Light installs air tap easily on the tire and flashes vibrant colours when one wheel around. It has an assortment of, Yellow, Red, Blue and Green, giving one’s roadside style a funky and bright edge. LED Bicycle Air Pump Lights functions by enhancing visibility and alertness of oncoming traffic that they are sharing the road (Petrie, 2008: p.26). Cup holders                  Cup holder enables the cyclist to snap onto handlebar. It is constructed out of two rings and a steel spring without screws and glue. Rings are of different sizes such that cyclists can flip a cup holder over depending on the size of the drink. It comes with little storage cube which fits inside the spring. Our cup holder hold two rings together in order to keep it neat and tidy when it is not being used. Cup holders are available in black, red, and white and green (Weston, 2011: p.36). Competition Comparison                  The competition comes in various forms. Most of our competitor is retailers. Our competitive advantage is that we can buy our products in bulk. This lowers cost such that we can afford to sell at low prices. We can afford to approach other companies and form alliances like amazon.com. The second competitor is Bicycle World. They are already established with good distribution channels. The advantage we enjoy over them is that Chain & Gear Limited sells to wholesalers, retailers and to the company will start with general corporate brochures to help establishing the positioning. This brochure will be part of start-up expenses. Chain & Gear Limited will at first be positioned as a company that offers cheap products. Our main strategy is to build strong loyalty from customers. We will promote our products as the most technologically advanced on the Pricing                  We will price our products in line with the other leading products. A pricing chart is shown below. To support these prices, i carried out a research to determine prices offered by other players. Research involved interviews and conversation. Product Unit Price iPhone bike mount:  £22 Saddle bags  £24 Cup holder  £10 LED Bicycle Air Pump Lights  £40 Promotion                  We will begin promoting our products through the following several avenues. These include Direct mail campaign, campaign for print advertising, Email web promotional campaigns. Company website will be developed to supplemental to these efforts.A direct mail campaign will start immediately with special time-limited pricing discounts for those who place order within one week after the date trading started. Distribution Product will initially be sold through direct sales force and on the company website. Our sales strategy that we employ is directed towards equipping the sales force with a lot of information to help them understand both the product and the market.Cloud computing accounting software is accounting software hosted on a remote server. It provides accounting and finance capabilities to firms in a fashion similar to a Software as a Service business model. Data sent to â€Å"the cloud,† is processed and returned to a user. All the application functions are performed on off-site and not on the user’s desktop.In cloud computing, users can remotely access software applications through the Internet or other networks through cloud application service provider. Cloud computing accounting software frees a business from having to incur the cost, install and maintain software on personal computers. It also permits employees working in a remote or branch office to access the same data and the same version of the software. In most cases, application providers charge based on usage as compared to site license fees that are associated with traditional accounting software deployments. Accounting data backup and disaster recovery is more often than not a part of one’s cloud computing accounting software account (Arias, 2011: p.35). Types of Cloud computingXero                  Xero gives features that are needed in a cloud accounting software. It connects to one’s bank and pulls in transactions on daily basis hence reduce manual data entry. It also does invoicing. They have the developer friendly API which allows third party developers to integrate apps into Xero One of the. It also has capabilities of bank reconciliation. Xero are plain smart. It will automatically match the transactions that are downloaded from one’s bank to transactions he or she created in Xero to help lessen the reconciliation process (Arias, 2011: p.36). It is generally considered as one of top accounting apps in Apple App Store. They target the mobile entrepreneur who is enabled to use their iPad for accounting purpose. Wave is a cloud accounting system that is for free. Wave connects with one’s bank such that one can categorize his or her transactions. It’s a fairly simple system to use. The learning curve is quite low. One can snap pictures of receipts and are uploaded into the receipts tab in Wave. Wave will then attempt to categorize and extract the key data needed.For a start up company Xero is recommended. This is because it can be downloaded easily using a smartphone. It also reported to learns on the go such that it attempt to predict your future transactions based on the past transactions (Arias, 2011: p.45). The management team for Chain & Gear Limited is a diverse group that has strong skills in marketing and sales, finance and operations. Our primary criteria for hiring these executive positions are based on extraordinary past achievement. Mr Chan brings 25 years of marketing and executive management expertise. Immediately prior to Chain & Gear Limited Mr Chan was CEO of ABC Corporation. He successfully reorganized the company, streamlining operations and improving profitability. He has held different management positions Mr Ricky has MBA from the San Jose State University. Jane Doeseski will join Chain & Gear Limited after ten years at EFG Software, Inc. She served recently as Senior Marketing Director and holds an MBA degree from Harvard University. Jon Smyth will join Chain & Gear Limited as Vice President of Finance. He worked. He worked in CDE Widgets, for 12 years, holding many executive finance management positions. Mr Smyth has a strong financial background and experience at both start-up and large corporations. He graduated from Berkley University with a degree in Accounting. The Financial PlanFinancial Needs Summary                  Investment funding needed for the capital expenses and operating expenses that are for the first year of operation. Computer/Electronic Equipment  £90,000 Office Furniture  £16,000 Marketing Materials/Promotions  £215,000 Office Lease for one year  £60,000 Utilities  £12,000 Inventory/Packaging Setup  £35,000 Salaries/benefits  £780,000 TOTAL Financing Needed: =SUM(ABOVE)  £1,208,000.00 Revenue Model                  Chain & Gear Limited revenue will be raised through product upgrades, sales, and annual renewals of the support contracts. Future ways for revenue include product training workshops and a bi-monthly magazine. In the first three months, financial statement is based on projections for sales for the first Phase. The second Phase will start in March of 2014; phase three in June of 2016 while the fourth phase will begin in September of 2014. The second assumption is that sales projected for year one are  £1.2 million. Commissions on sales are figured on 75% of total sales (Assuming that 30% of the sold units will come from the sales in the website as well as other direct response sales). Commission rate is 12%. Financial Statements are in the Appendices of the business plan. References Arias, T. (2011). The cloud computing applications handbook: everything you need to know about cloud computing applications. S.l.: Emereo Pty Limited. Petrie, K. (2008). Bicycles. Edina, Minn.: ABDO Pub.. Pinson, L. (2005). Anatomy of a business plan: a step-by-step guide to building a business and securing your company’s future (6th ed.). Chicago, IL: Dearborn Trade Pub.. Velte, A. T., Velte, T. J., & Elsenpeter, R. C. (2010). Cloud computing a practical approach. New York: McGraw-Hill. Weston, O. (2010). Bicycle accessories and repair supplies: bicycles, motorcycle accessories, motor accessories ([Nachdr. der Ausg.] Montreal ; Toronto ; Weston ; Winnipeg ; Vancouver, Canada Cycle and Motor Company Limited, 2010. ed.). Bremen: Europ. Hochsch.-Verl.. Young, P. (2008). Business plan. Chandni Chowk, Delhi: Global Media. Source document

Evangelization of Natives essays

Evangelization of Natives essays History has an important and major subject that is responsible for what we now coin as modern America. This historical subject is that of the Spanish conquests that took place in the early 1500s and there was a significant factor that they implemented in their conquests. Evangelization or otherwise known as Christian conversion of the Natives was something that was key for Spaniards during the colonial times. As history reveals, the conversion was not always a peaceful one as the following will display. After all, when a stranger tries to impose something on someone that they dont agree with, 9 times out of 10 there will be an objection. First of all, Spanish conquests held up for a while through the use of the encomienda system which Natives were basically slaves and served a master of particular jurisdiction ( KH, 78). With the success of these factors in the hands of the Spaniards their belief was to place an inferiority label on the Natives and to do this conversion was the ideal way. Although, Bartolome de Las Casas was an important factor in trying to stop the Spaniards from expressing their scorn for Natives by utilizing his protective laws in their favor, it wasnt enough. They proceeded to implement their evangelization of Natives with determination. The first friar missionaries in the Indies converted mass amounts of Natives although some were unwilling to accept the new divinity placed upon them (KH, 103). Moreover, the Franciscans dominated Mexico and converted more than a million Natives by 1531, while Motolinia converted fifteen hundred in one day ( KH, 103). Some Natives in an effort to oppose this act were baptized or resorted into idolatry, which is the continued belief in a certain god or idol. These sort of resistance tactics by the Natives ended in their being punished through burning or hanging. In Mexico, Aztecs who were converted were described as Christian enough&quo...

Witness for the Prosecution

Witness for the Prosecution There has been a murder in 1950s England. Miss Emily French, a woman approaching age 60, was found dead in her house on Friday October the 14th. Her housekeeper was away that evening and Miss Emilys   only other friend, Leonard Vole, was the last person to see her alive. The murder occurred at approximately 9:30 at night. Leonard Vole insists he was at his own home at that time, however the housekeeper, Janet Mackenzie, says she heard him speaking with Miss Emily French at 9:25 when Janet briefly returned home to pick up a sewing pattern. Leonard Vole has retained the services of a solicitor, Mr. Mayhew, and barrister, Sir Wilfred Robarts, QC. Leonard Vole is an extremely likeable man with a story that could either be 1.) the most believable tale of a nice man down on his luck who made friends with an older woman or 2.) the perfect set-up for the chance to inherit close to a million pounds. When Miss Emily French’s last will and testament names Leonard as the sole beneficiary of her estate, it seems Leonard will be found guilty. Only Leonard’s wife, Romaine, has a chance of persuading the jury of Leonard’s innocence. But Romaine has a few secrets and a hidden agenda of her own and she isn’t sharing the details with anyone. Production Details Setting: Sir Wilfred Robart’s offices, English Courtroom Time: 1950s Cast Size: This play can accommodate 13 actors with numerous non-speaking small roles as the jury and courtroom attendants. Male Characters: 8 Female Characters: 5 Characters that could be played by either males or females: 0 Content Issues:  Stabbing Roles Carter is Sir Wilfred’s clerk. He is an older gentleman who prides himself on keeping good time and good order of his boss’s offices. Greta is Sir Wilfred’s typist. She is described as â€Å"adenoidal† and flighty. She is easily distracted by the people who come into the office, especially if she has read about them in the newspaper. Sir Wilfred Robarts, QC is the well-respected barrister on Leonard Vole’s case. He prides himself on reading people and their intentions perfectly the first time he meets them. He is knowledgeable and puts genuine effort into each case he tries. Mr. Mayhew is the solicitor on Leonard Vole’s case. He assists Sir Wilfred in office work and provides another pair of eyes and ears to examine the evidence and consider strategies. His knowledge and opinions are invaluable assets for the case. Leonard Vole appears to be the all-around good-natured sort of man one would enjoy befriending. He has dreams and aspirations that will not come to fruition in his current financial situation, but he is not a complainer. He has the ability to endear himself to anyone, especially to women. Romaine is Leonard’s wife. Their marriage is not technically legal, as she is still married (on paper) to a man from her native Germany. Although Leonard insists that Romaine loves him and is devoted to him, she is a difficult woman to read. She has her own agenda and is skeptical that anyone will be able to help her. Mr. Myers, QC is the prosecuting barrister. He and Sir Wilfred, who often find themselves opposite one other in court, have a contentious relationship and. Both manage to keep civil tongues and behave when they appear in front of the judge, but their mutual animosity is evident. Mr. Justice Wainwright is the judge in Leonard Vole’s case. He is fair and handles the barristers and witnesses with a firm hand. He is not above inserting his opinion or telling a story if need be. Janet Mackenzie was Miss Emily French’s housekeeper and companion for twenty years. She has an unyielding personality. She is not charmed by Leonard Vole and has a very dim opinion of him as a person. Other Smaller Roles and Non-speaking Roles Inspector Hearne Plain Clothes Detective Third Juror Second Juror Foreman of the Jury Court Usher Clerk of the Court Alderman Judge’s Clerk Court Stenographer Warder Barristers (6) Policeman Dr. Wyatt Mr. Clegg The Other Woman Production Notes Set. The two must-have sets for Witness for the Prosecution are Sir Wilfred’s office and the courtroom. For this show – no minimalistic approaches. The sets ought to be built and dressed according to resemble a formal barrister’s office and courtroom of the time period. Costumes must be period specific and of note are the traditional wigs and robes worn in British courtrooms by the barristers, judges, and solicitors. Because the time span of the play is six weeks, some actors will need several costume changes. The playwright provides a specific note on doubling up the roles actors may play in order for smaller casts to still achieve the â€Å"spectacle† of the courtroom. She offers a template for the roles that may be reduced or be cast by the using the same actor. This template is available in the script offered from Samuel French. However, Christie stresses that the same actress that plays Greta should not play the role of â€Å"The Other Woman.† Even though the two characters never appear onstage at the same time, Christie does not want the audience to think that it is part of the plot and that Greta is in fact The Other Woman. Christie goes on to offer suggestions that â€Å"local amateurs† be used to fill out the courtroom scene or even that the audience be invited to sit on the stage. Playwright Agatha Christie (1890 – 1976) is beloved and renowned mystery writer from England. She is best known for her novels and such characters as Miss Marple, Hercule Pirot, and Tommy and Tuppence. Her stories focus on mysteries and murder; where the truth is found in the details and the characters are never who they first appear to be. Her play Mousetrap claims the title of longest running play with a production history that spans over 60 years. Agatha Christie is so prolific and popular that only Shakespeare and the Bible have only outsold her works. Samuel French holds the production rights for Witness for the Prosecution.

Organisations need strong culture. Consider this statementin relation Essay

Organisations need strong culture. Consider this statementin relation to how we understand and makesense of culture in the post-bureaucratic era - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to explain the mainstream approach to organization culture. Here the managers always work to maintain right values, ethics, code of conduct and norms. Culture is the top priority for organizations where culture management, ensuring employees to follow the organization’s culture leading to organizational success. Values, norms and ethics vary among organizations when organizations are treated as different states. All of these organizations have different value sets and norms leading to differing systems and structures (Brewis, 2007). Culture, therefore, provides a common sense to the organization that enables the human resource to delineate ways to how to act and when and where to act. Organizational culture is responsible for bringing an organization to life as all the strategies, policies, regulations must be synchronized with the culture and the employees and managers (the alive participants) of the organization keeps the culture alive by following it. Organizational culture is therefore written and stored in the form of job descriptions, procedures, strategies etc. But if there arises a conflict between the documented and the practiced norms, values, and beliefs practiced within an organization, serious conflicts may occur leading to disastrous effects. The people will drift away from the formal rules at workplace. Organizational culture comprises of values and sets of beliefs that directly and predominantly originate from people’s minds identified as cultural artefacts (Brewis, 2007). Cultural artefacts are somewhat tangible and more material embodiment of organizational culture consisting of: According to Schein, among the three levels of culture, artefacts forms the tip of the iceberg, that is the visible part keeping hence, the two other parts way behind and hidden beneath. Values refer to answering questions such as what we are