Gay Marriage - 1574 Words

Gay Marriage In The News In the United States, there is social unrest regarding the governments denial of the right to marry for homosexuals. Plenty of conservatives are completely against gay marriage; and many of liberals are fighting for equal treatment. The neo-Christian politicians are using religious arguments to establish that homosexuality is an abomination. While this may be their belief system, this country was founded on religious freedom, where the people are allowed to worship how they see fit. A ground rule, set up from the beginning, states that separation needs to be made between religion and government, so the two shall never meld to become a theocracy. With the issue of gay marriage, lines get blurred and religion†¦show more content†¦In response to this opposition, there is a separation of church and state so no matter what your religious beliefs are, you cannot deny someone a government sanctioned license based on what the bible says. Gay marriage a nd polygamy are two separate issues and comparing the two makes the argument irrelevant. During the civil rights movement of the 60s this comparison was also made of interracial marriages and polygamists. That gay men are promiscuous is a sweeping overstatement, and the same could be said about men in general. So if this is true of all men, should straight men be held to the same standard? If so, then adultery and/or cheating would become grounds for denying a straight couple a marriage license. Traditional marriage is only for people who can procreate. If this were true, then infertile/sterile couples, asexual couples, and women who are menopausal should be refused marriage licenses as well. Finally, the opponents are scared that gay marriage will corrupt the straight neighbors to lead alternative lifestyles. Call me crazy, but being gay isnt like the flu. You cant catch it from someone. Its not a game of TAG! Youre gay! If the neighbors are going to leave their spouses for an alternative lifestyle, then there was something wrong with their marriage to begin with and that has nothing to do with the gay neighbors. There are 1049 legal reasons why gay couples would want marital status to be recognized by the government. DidShow MoreRelatedGay Marriage Should Be Legal Essay1850 Words   |  8 Pageswhat it means to be a gay man – even if that is not the language that always would be used to describe homosexual behavior in a given place and time. In the United St ates, gay marriage has been legalized in all 50 states by a federal court ruling, but many Americans do not realize that there is still a long way to go in terms of embracing gay citizens (and the rest of the LGBT community) into the â€Å" societal norm.† Despite the strides that have been taken to legalize marriage for same sex couples,Read MoreGay Marriage Should Be Legal1848 Words   |  8 Pageswholly ashamed of. Gay marriage is legal in all 50 United States, something that has been fought for since the conception of the LGBT movement. In fact, gay couples are routinely being featured on popular television and other forms of media. Some might say that in 2016, the dreams of the rioters in Stonewall have been realized. Marriage rights and the spotlight on nighttime television; equality seems to truly be right on the horizon. If one is a white, cis, gay man, that is. Gay women are featuresRead MoreThe Supreme Court Ruling On Gay Marriages893 Words   |  4 PagesIts time for me to share my opinion and perspective regarding the Supreme Court ruling on gay marriages. Forewarning, this post will be long because I have more than just an opinion to express, but rather a story to tell which will enlighten anyone who chooses to read this as to what my true perspective and opinion regarding gay marriages. (and gay people in general as a Christian) A few months ago I faced a difficult time in my life. I was homeless and I had nowhere to stay with my newborn babyRead MoreGay Marriage Should Be Accepted And Respected932 Words   |  4 Pagesopen-minded. The rise in the LGTB movement has allowed people to openly express their sexuality without being discriminated against. Although homosexuality has become more socially acceptable, some states still have anti-gay laws and there are numerous individuals who believe that gay marriage is harmful and unnatural. Hozier’s â€Å"Take Me to Church,† Demi Lovato’s â€Å"Really Don’t Care† and Macklemore’s â€Å"Same Love† demonstrate society’s discrimination of homosexuals and why homosexuality should be accepted andRead MoreThe Tragedy of Gay Marriage1757 Words   |  8 PagesWorst Thing About Gay Marriage† presents an interesting argument against gay marriage that hinges upon maintaining a traditional form of marriage. He act ually claims that gay marriage is â€Å"unnecessary†(381). According to Schulman, there are 4 primary effects of marriage within his definition he calls the kinship system. First, marriage protects and controls a woman’s sexuality. Second, the possible pairings are limited by the kinship system to avoid incest or other taboos. Third, marriage creates a situationRead MoreThe Issue Of Gay Marriage1464 Words   |  6 Pages Marriage is one of the oldest, passed down traditions since the beginning of time. As humanity evolves through generations, traditions change, but the act of choosing your partner stays the same. For an example, not until President Barack Obama was in office, gay marriage was unacceptable. When President Obama announced that gay marriage was legal, that was a moment in history that will never be forgotten. The process of marriage continues to be the same, but each generation has been going outRead MoreGay Marriage And Gay Rights2550 Words   |  11 PagesComp II 8 May, 2015 Gay Marriage and Gay Rights For years there has been a debate on gay marriage and gay rights in America. Often government keeps pushing the issue back, or refuses to partake in the debates and discussions on whether or not this type of union is â€Å"legal† in the United States. My hope with this paper is to prove that gay marriage is not in fact unconstitutional, but that there is a right to freedom for everyone, no exclusions. When it comes to gay marriage, there seem to be a numberRead MoreThe Issue Of Gay Marriage Essay3392 Words   |  14 PagesWell it is 2007, and we are still dealing with the issue of gay marriage being good, and not good for America. Now maybe in 20 years gay marriage will be legal in each state, and this issue will be over. However, I deal in reality. And reality tells me the idea of two men frotting inside a home with children, frankly makes people sick to their stomachs. I prefer women, but I think what two grown people do in their bedrooms is their private moral, and legal business. Just like a straight couple thatRead MoreGay Marriage1280 Words   |  6 Pagesburrows, but flamboyantly celebrate their identities. The gays are now a people willing and ready to be heard. It has come to all of our attentions that in the light of marriage they have been depraved and deceived. Homosexuals cannot allow this persecution to continue, as they are constantly forfeited equal rights. The arguments are of lifestyle differences and the legalized discrimination of these people. It encompasses same-sex marriage as a cause worth fighting and defending so that we all mayRead MoreGay Marriage1041 Words   |  5 PagesCompare-Contrast Synthesis 10/11/2013 English 111x Gay Marriage Gay marriage is a topic that is heavily debated in this day and age. Whether or not it should be legal for homosexuals to get married is a theme that authors Andrew Sullivan, who wrote â€Å"For Gay Marriage† and William J. Bennett, who wrote â€Å"Against Gay Marriage† use in there articles. The main points the authors both discus is the meaning of marriage itself, the social impact same sex marriage will have on society, and the influence on children

Inherit The Wind (931 words) Essay Example For Students

Inherit The Wind (931 words) Essay Inherit The WindThe Truth about Stanley Kramer’s Inherit the WindHistory is consistently used in films as a technique to teach the values and morals of events that occurred. But what’s the point in teaching history through films when they are terribly fictional? In films, the director finds the best scheme to intrigue their audience only by changing the actual event to satisfy their interest. This is true for Stanley Kramer when he made the history of John Scopes and his â€Å"monkey trial† into a film called Inherit the Wind. Kramer knew the exact stereotypical â€Å"Hollywood history† his audience enjoyed. The trial itself had a series of conflicts, the main one being evolution vs. religion. Yet there was also a series of tensions throughout the movie, including the argument between individual vs. society. The same themes from Inherit the Wind can also be seen from the actual â€Å"monkey trial† event in Dayton, Tennessee. It is sometimes said that truth is stranger than fiction and according to this film, truth is also stronger than fiction. Inherit the Wind ignored the true dramatic moment, which is essential to the actual trial that happened in Dayton, Tennessee. Kramer even portrayed his own opinion of this trial in this film. The truth was so distorted in the film so now the argument is not individual vs. society or evolution vs. religion but history vs. fiction. Inherit the Wind is set in the little town of Hillsboro when Bertram Cates (played by), a biology teacher, was thrown into prison for teaching Darwin’s theory of evolution. Two famous lawyers were behind this case, Henry Drummond (played by) as the defender and Mathew Harrison Brady (played by), as the prosecutor. Mathew Harrison Brady who was â€Å"voted 3 times for a presidential candidate† was sent to Hillsboro is carry out the job as a prosecutor for this trial. As for Cates, a journalist from Baltimore Herald by the name of E.K. Horrbeck willingly provided a lawyer named Henry Drummond for him. Horrbeck was interested in the Cates, expecting to make big bucks from this big â€Å"media† case. The two opposing lawyers, Drummond and Brady, were Kramer’s two main characters, both with different opinions on how humans arrived on earth. Drummond supported the evolution theory, while Brady, the creation theory. In this film, Kramer distorted the facts of the actual trial to make this film more of a drama than a history documentary. He added fictitious characters like Reverend Heremiah Brown (played by) and his daughter Rachel Brown (played by) to bring this drama out. It’s obvious that Rachel is used as icon in Inherit the Wind to make film be seen as more of a drama with the typical love story that directly attracts more audience to his film. Kramer also added Brady’s death in the courtroom. He dramatically died of a heart attack in the chaotic courtroom at the end of the trial after his last speech. Persecuted The film is far from the truth, the actual trial didn’t happen in quite the same way. The 1925, Dayton, Tennessee went against one of its individual, John Scopes. He just so happened to be substituting for a biology class that was learning about the Darwin’s theory. Similar to the film, the actual lawyers, Darrow and Bryan were also famous in their position of the society. Darrow was the defender, and Bryan, the prosecutor. The characters in this film also had different personalities compared with the actual history figures they are. Take Drummond for example, he was less cynical and biting than Scopes’ actual defender, Darrow. .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .postImageUrl , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:hover , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:visited , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:active { border:0!important; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:active , .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7454ef1c8116f29b23ba7bf17b1d36cc:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Native American Astronomy (1211 words) Essay Brady, on the other hand, was portrayed more of a comical fanatic at moments in the courtroom. From this event on, the flaws of this little town began to reveal. The townspeople of Hillsboro were far more frenzied, mean-spirited, and ignorant than the real citizens of Dayton were toward this trial. From the fictitious characters and the distant differences between the history and film, I can conclude that Kramer was completely biased when he was directing this film. When the actual trial and the film are compared, it’d obvious that Kramer was not only thinking of his audience’s interest but his own. He was biased against a particular class of people and their beliefs. The people who believed in the â€Å"miracle recorded in the bible, especially the section in Genesis about God’s creation, were portrayed in a disgraceful uncomplimentary way. However, the people who didn’t believe in the bible were eminently reasonable people who must put on with the threats and ignorance of the fundamentalist Christians around them. The Christian fundamentalists, Bryan being one of them, were consistently lampooned throughout the film while skeptics and agnostics were consistently portrayed as intelligent, rational, and even heroic like Drummond. Kramer did want to make Inherit the Wind similar to John Scopes’ trial. It can also be seen that Kramer had made the names of the character and the history figure with almost all the same syllables and even some with the same letter of the first letter in their names. Though in attempted to portray this, he let too many things in his path that overcame the importance of the truth. But is the truth always most important? Or rather what we like to think is the truth? It’s a lot simpler when we think that way but in reality it isn’t so using films as a technique to teach history is purposeless.English Essays

What is Judaism according to Heschel Essay Example Essay Example

What is Judaism according to Heschel Essay Example Paper What is Judaism according to Heschel Essay Introduction According to Rabbi Heschel Judaism was that whenever somebody mentioned the name Judaism, it was like taking about either somebody citing a poem, God the father or someone who lived a spiritual life. Since many people believed that without God everything is impossible, Heschel tried to come out clearly that people need to be strong in faith despite all the difficulties they are going through. He also stressed out that everyone should be able to live peacefully with each other by forgiving one another whenever there is a problem between them. (Merkel, 1985, p.2) (Heschel, 1985).The word of God was for everyone no matter what they do, where they come from or whatever language they speak. One way of making people understands the word of God was to write and come out clearly about religious teachings. They were also being taught how to live in harmony and how to confess to one another whenever there is a problem among them. (Merkel, 1985, p. 3) (Heschel, 1985).According to Heschel, Torah ’s ways of giving out ideas or explanations about Judaism was like a reflection of what has been happening in our daily lives as it was written in the bible. God the Father also appears as a very bright light to show people that they should believe and have faith in Him all the time. (Merkel, 1985, p. 4) (Heschel, 1985).Heschel join one of the spiritual congregations where he became more spiritual and strong in faith. This attracted very many people as it was a good example of a Jesus follower. It also made many people to listen, understand and believe in the word of God. (Merkel, 1985, p. 5) (Heschel, 1985).Rabbi was so much into Christianity that he could not have time to come together with other people in his congregation. This made the people of his congregation to say that he was over doing the work of Christianity. He also tried to make people have peace, love, and unity and go as far celebrating mass as a sign of commitment to God. . (Merkel, 1985, p. 6) (Heschel, 1985 ).Everyone was to understand the word of God in the right way and apply in their daily life. This was made to encourage the weak people who were not strong in faith to be able to participate in duties that strengthen their faith. The difficulties that the people of Israel experience on Mount Sinai were a big challenge for them in their life. This is because from there is when man had really believed that God do exist. (Merkel, 1985, p. 7) (Heschel, 1985).He brought the image of God as he appears to Moses on Mount Sinai. This is when Moses’ people had no faith in God and started worshipping other gods. God became angry and appeared to Moses and gave him the Ten Commandments that could guide and make his people believe and trust in God. The Ten Commandments were written so that everyone should believe that all the writings were truly from Jesus but not Moses. (Merkel, 1985, p. 8) (Heschel, 1985).Moses is also portrayed as good leader because he is seen leading his people from I srael to Misery as per instructions given by God. This is when God appeared to him as burning bush when he was looking after the cattle. By then they had no commandments to follow but they still believed in God as their creator and source of inspiration in their life. (Merkel, 1985, p. 9) (Heschel, 1985).As it is seen in the bible that by the time God gave Moses the Ten Commandments, his people had already lost their faith and started worshipping other gods. This made it very difficult for Moses to make all of them believe in the Ten Commandments given the God. It implies that not all Moses’ people accepted the Ten Commandments. That, s why there are always new laws every generation. (Merkel, 1985, p. 10) (Heschel, 1985).Though there were some people who disagreed with Moses as he gave them the Ten Commandments, majority believed on the Ten Commandments that made many generations that comes after them to accept and follow the Ten Commandments as it was meant to strengthen peo ple’s faith in their daily life. (Merkel, 1985, p. 11) (Heschel, 1985).People should be in a position to understand and believe in Jesus’ signs as it was written in the bible. They need to accept that even though they can’t see some of these things happening now, they had already happened before and their fore fathers believed in them. So it’s a big challenge to them to accept the reality of the past. (Merkel, 1985, p. 12) (Heschel, 1985).As it is written in the bible that when Jesus went to Cana and wine got finished during the wedding, He asked for water and turned it into wine for the people who were in the wedding. And also when there was a lot of wind when he was with James and John in a boat, He stopped the wind. These two signs show that God is always there for his people and He will always present in them wherever they go. (Merkel, 1985, p. 13) (Heschel, 1985).It is good to believe in what you understand best than to believe in what you donâ€℠¢t know. This only comes out when you really accept, believe and have faith in the scriptures of the bible. You should be able to relate the scriptures of the bible into your daily life and try to practice them in your life because this is only way to strengthened your faith. (Merkel, 1985, p. 14) (Heschel, 1985).Moses was one of the most prominent leaders that God used to show people the right way of life that will remain a remembrance in life to everyone. These are written in the bible so that everyone can understand whatever happened in the past during the reign of their fore fathers. (Merkel, 1985, p. 15) (Heschel, 1985).It is also important to preach or translate the scriptures of the bible according what was written rather than preaching the things which do not exist to people. This is because whatever is being taught now will remain as a history for the coming generations. They should understand that the scriptures of the bible are holy words from God the father but just a no rmal human being. (Merkel, 1985, p. 16) (Heschel, 1985).God communicated to his people through the scriptures by sending prophets to perform various signs. This can be seen as he ordered Abraham to sacrifice his only son, appearing to Moses as burning bush, saving his disciple from drowning during the strong wind and raising Larus from death after four days. All these events remain as a history to every generation that comes and it will always be there to guide them in their life. (Merkel, 1985, p. 17) (Heschel, 1985).The covenant between God and Moses on Mount Sinai was a sign of an agreement between the people of Israel and God. It made easier for the people of Israel to communicate to God and adored Him as their only savior. So for the people of Israel to communicate to God they had to understand the scripture, translate it and relate to their daily life. (Merkel, 1985, p. 18) (Heschel, 1985).The covenant made on Mount Sinai lead to various activities to be performed by man. This is where man had to obey the holy Sunday, do not kill, do not steal, obey their parents so that you can live longer, believe in God all the time and always standing firm to tell truth. Even the people of Israel went as far as fasting in order to strengthen their faith which remained as history to all the coming generations. (Merkel, 1985, p. 19) (Heschel, 1985).When Moses received the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, it does not mean it was the end of everything that God had to give his people. It implies that the door was still open for more teachings in the future. This encourages people to believe and trust in God as their only comforter during the trial moments in their lives. (Merkel, 1985, p. 20) (Heschel, 1985).The bible was not written as book to be read but as scripture to guide people in their lives. It was supposed to be read, understand the meaning of the scriptures and translate and then preach the right words of God to the people. This would inspire many people to rea d the scriptures of the bible and know the reason why Jesus sacrificed to suffer on their behalf. (Merkel, 1985, p. 21) (Heschel, 1985).As seen that it is very easier for the people to live as God’s people when they both understand the bible very well. Therefore it is good to make people believe in Jesus as their only guidance in life. When you follow the right path that is God’s foot steps, you will find life interesting and encouraging no matter what difficulties you may be going through. It also makes man become a strong Christian which remains as an example to his forth coming generations. (Merkel, 1985, p. 22) (Heschel, 1985).Jesus loves the world so much that he bled and died for the human kind. So it is the work of the man to be able to follow God’s commandments in order to fulfill God’s promises. It does mean that God made it so difficult for the man not to enjoy life but to have good life both in the world and in heaven. That is why Jesus forbids man not to do some of the things in life. It is not a punishment but a lesson to prepare them for both life in the world and the kingdom of God. (Merkel, 1985, p. 23) (Heschel, 1985).Everyone should be able to carry his own cross when it comes to serving God because you will be judged according your own deeds but not on the behalf of someone else. Man must be able to know the scriptures of the bible so that it can able to apply it any time in his or her life. This will also help people to have time worship God because everyone is a position to read and interpret whatever information which is in the bible. (Merkel, 1985, p. 24) (Heschel, 1985).Conclusion:Judaism is all about the past events that happened during the reign of the prophets like Moses, Elijah and Abraham. These are the days when God used to communicate to man through prophets. The prophets could see God in visions, signs and symbols then go and communicate to the people according what they have seen in their visions or symbols they had received. They had to explain all the details of what God told them. So that is how man communicated to god in older days.Reference:Heschel, A. J. (1965). Between God and Man: An interpretation of Judaism.Free Press New York. ISBN- 13: 9780029145104.Merkle, J. C., ed. (1985) Abraham Joshua Heschel: Exploring His Life and Thought: Judaismas a Prism – Excavating Heschel’s Refracted Torah Eitan Freedenberg.London: Collier Macmillan. Available athttp://www.history.umd.edu/Faculty/BCooperman/Construction_Jewish_Knowledge/CJKhandout2006_files/Eitan%20Freedenberg%20-%20Heschel’s%20Prism.pdfAccessed on July 28, 2008. What is Judaism according to Heschel Essay Thank you for reading this Sample!

The effects of Stress on Short Term Memory

The effects of Stress on Short Term Memory Free Online Research Papers When someone says the word stress the mind immediately shifts to a negative thought with painful consequences, although stress can be either positive or negative. Negative stress has been blamed for a variety of health issues as well as psychological and physiological symptoms and problems. It is estimated that millions of pounds are lost in work related, educational and health care costs every year due to stress. While stress is a naturally occurring reaction to the environment around the individual it can be harmful if prolonged or in increased amounts. For the purpose of this paper, we will examine the realms of stress and the impact of stress on memory. What is Stress? In a dangerous or unpleasant experience the body reacts automatically to the threat by the brain triggering a number of activities. Stress is defined as a reaction by the body to an internal or external perceived harmful threat, that causes the body to come under pressure or strain (Panzarino, 2006). During an event that an individual feels threatened, physiological triggers in the brain create a state in which many things take place. Chemicals such as adrenaline and Cortisol are released into the blood stream causing defensive actions to take place in the muscles. These chemicals cause heart rate increases which in turn increase blood pressure and blood sugar. The increase in blood flow allows additional oxygen to be distributed throughout the body that is needed for this increased state of alertness and energy. The body basically prepares itself for defensive actions by protecting itself or preparing to run, which ever is most feasible at the time. Most have heard of the term â€Å"fight or flight†; this is what is referred to as the stress induced state. If the individual is to flee they will need more energy and the ability to run from the threat. On the other hand if a fight is in order the body must be prepared for extended bursts of strength and endurance as well as healing capabilities. The chemicals released by the brain prepare the body for these reactions to a stressful event. After the threat has ended and the individual is returned to a stage of safety the body will then return to a normal state or a homeostasis. Types of Stress Acute Acute Stress is a type of stress that is an immediate reaction to an external event, such as a car accident or a loud noise. The immediate changes within the body allow the person to spring into action to determine the appropriate action that is needed. Everyone experiences acute stress on a daily basis. Examples include a soft drink spilling or a boss that is having a bad day at work. This type of stress resolves as quickly as it presents, causing no noticeable long-term effects. During acute stress the body and mind are at its very best. All brain functions including memory are very sharp and processing incoming data. The brain is working very hard to sort through the information and commits the experiences to memory for future use. If the stress is continued it can cause memory to be inhibited, but until that point the memory is sharp. Distress Distress is exactly like it sounds; a negative reaction to changes in environment, mental or internal events that cause an adverse reaction for the individual. The brain does not accept change without reacting. The brain functions more like a computer and works better under the presumption of a routine. When the routine is changed or altered the body reacts to the stress by setting into action a course of events designed to mitigate any perceived damage. Eustress Stress does not necessarily have to be a negative event that triggers the body to respond. Positive stress or eustress is referred to as a positive event that causes an individual to assume a fresh look on life and keep them engaged in living. Stress is the body’s natural reaction to changes in the environment regardless of whether they are positive or negative. For example, the birth of a new child places stress on the mother, but in a positive manner. Eustress has been linked to positive effects on memory in terms of new experiences and memories. Since eustress is typically not a prolonged state it poses little threat to the body and unlike its counterpart, distress, seldom becomes chronic. Chronic Acute stress, eustress and distress are normal reactions as a part of life. The concern and problems come in when the body continues the cycle of stress known as chronic stress. Chronic stress has been linked to serious medical concerns as well as psychological issues. Chronic stress weakens the body’s immune system making the individual more susceptible to illness (Miller, 2002). The frequency and duration of the body’s reaction to stress that is placed on organs of the body can also cause them to break down and begin to weaken leading to heart attacks, strokes and other serious conditions. The brains activity during stress: The brain is where the origination of activity transpires when the body is in a state of stress. When an individual perceives a threat there are several hormones that are released. For example, if you are crossing the street and a speeding car turns the corner and is heading for you, your body enters into the stress reaction possibly before you even realize there is a threat. One of the first things that happens when faced with an immediate threat is the neurotransmitter adrenaline is released into the bloodstream in order to increase heart rate and change the rate of flow of blood. The organs necessary for survival are supplied with oxygen rich blood and all others are silenced. The pituitary gland releases the hormone known as adrenocorticotrophin (University of Pittsburgh, 2006). The adrenocorticotrophin is responsible for triggering the release of Cortisol in the adrenal gland (Miller, 2007). Cortisol is a very important hormone that is needed to free up energy stores and help re store the body to a normally functioning level. After the threat has subsided the body must restore normal energy levels and eliminate the excessive hormones that are circulating throughout the body. Cortisol assists by signaling the release of blood sugar from the liver as well releasing stores of fat for energy use. Cortisol can be said to organize and facilitate the hormones and neurotransmitters during the stressful event (Luipen, 2005). The release of Cortisol is a positive hormonal release for the body, but in cases of chronic stress the body can become accustomed to the additional need for Cortisol therefore increasing the demand. When this happens it can lead to health issues such as hypertension and heart disease (National Institute of Health, 2002). While the body is involved in sustaining safety, another very important activity is transpiring. During the release of the hormones the hippocampus is also engaged in a very important task. The data is stored in the hippocampus for a period of time and then moved into the cerebral cortex for long term storage. This is very important in the area of learning because it provides the individual experience to avoid another stressful situation or event. That is how we learn by experiencing then having the ability to access the information at a later date. In some cases the hippocampus is deprived of glucose because of continued stress it can cause permanent damage. The hippocampus is taxed with making new memories in order for storage and use at a later date. If the decreased glucose level is continued the hippocampus becomes unable to produce new memories. This happens many times in traumatic events and the individual is unable to remember the event. In case of reduced hippocampus abili ty it can not only inhibit memory but it can also inhibit the ability to learn. In a recent study with mice, researchers found that stressed mice were much slower in the learning process than their unstressed counterparts. The research concluded that stress causes a â€Å"fuzz like† symptom because of the slower cognitive processes (Pawlak, 2005). As we know chronic stress and even perceived stress can result in higher levels of cortisol. Cortisol has been linked to decreased memory as well as neuronal death (Neuroanatomy). Patients suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder were found to have a 10% reduction in the hippocampus (Neuroanatomy). This suggests that with repeated and chronic stress the release of the hormones can cause irreparable damage to the hippocampus, causing memories and functioning to diminish. Symptoms of Stress: Individuals react differently to stress and no two individuals are alike, but many have similar symptoms. Symptoms can be physiological or psychological. Either category can be detrimental to memory, learning and general feeling of wellness. Physical symptoms are the first reactions that the individual notices to a stressful event. People are different, but many are affected in similar ways to a stress induced state. Many suffer from a pounding or racing heart, which is in reference to the increased hormones released. With the influx of hormones it is not uncommon for the individual to experience nausea or abdominal pain. This is sometimes referred to as a hormone dump, when the individual suffers from nausea during or after a stressful event. Sweating, shortness of breath and diarrhea are also common physical symptoms of stress. As well as physical reactions there are a number of psychological or emotional symptoms to stress. As noted earlier when the cortisol is released into the bloodstream during a stressful event there can be marked mood swings (Miller, 2007). Emotional outbursts can also accompany and negative feelings. Many faced with a stressful event will feel as if they can not make a decision and have a lack of coping skills. This is because under pressure the brain has diverted all attention to surviving leaving the individual flooded with stimulus. The increased cortisol in the body interferes with the ability to think (Salposky, 2000). The brain typically reacts to the primary threat leaving other functioning lacking until the perceived threat has ended. Stress and its effects on the body: Not all stress is bad in fact it is not the stress state that is bad at all. Stress is your body’s reaction to a threat, which is a good thing. If your body did not react you would not be able to move or react in time to avoid harm or injury. Stress is a state in which the body allows more energy, which can work to the benefit of the individual. Example of how stress can give an edge is an athlete in a sporting event or a student waiting outside an examination room. That stress helps prepare the body for the feat that it is getting ready to undergo. Short periods of stress and the hormones produced by the brain can sharpen memory with the boost of energy that is given by the releasing hormones. This energy which is glucose can be used in productive manners in remembering and assisting the mind in categorizing the incoming data. This short-term surge of hormones and other chemicals produced by the body can allow the individual to have a sense of well being. Not only does the body undergo the physical changes that allow the person to sharpen their senses, it also improves memory. Stress and Memory: Short-term memory is often called the working or primary memory. It is the area of memory that is responsible for the complex cognitive processes such as logic, reasoning and learning. Information is stored in the short-term memory for seconds, minutes and up to about thirty minutes. After the period of time has elapsed some of the information is moved into long term memory. Many researchers have studied the effects of stress on memory. To expand on the earlier statement of deprivation of glucose to the hippocampus, it is apparent that damage can result causing impaired memory and learning abilities (Pawlak, 2005). In a study conducted with laboratory rats, scientists have found that when rats were subjected to ongoing stress there were physical changes within the brain. Chronic stress was found to alter the neurons in the hippocampus, causing a decrease in dendrite spines and NMDA receptors. The dendrite spines and NMDA receptors are two structures necessary for memory (Pawlak, 2005). It was found that the rat’s memory and learning ability was severely impaired. The hippocampus is responsible for recollections such as people, places and events and since the damage takes place within the hippocampus it is only reasonable to make the determination that short-term memory is negatively affected. Researchers have also questioned whether or not factors such as age and gender have any difference when evaluating the effects of stress on short-term memory. In a study conducted by Elzinga it was found that there are differences in the effects of Cortisol between gender and age (2005). In the study they found that men were more susceptible to the impact of Cortisol than women (Elzinga, 2005). Another very important factor found in a study conducted by Kleen, was rodents subjected to stress exhibited inhibitory reactions consistent with depression (2006). The rats were found to have decreased motivation and an increased adrenal size. The adrenal gland is located above the kidneys and is responsible for the production of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), Cortisol and adrenaline (Elzinga, 2005). In a recent study conducted at the University of Miami found that college students that experienced thoughts of painful or stressful situations, though not traumatic had an elevated level of cor tisol in their saliva (McCullough, 2007). This signifies that the brain quickly retrieves the previous data and stress event triggering the biochemical reaction. In another study it was found that individuals that were given a 30mg cortisol were less negative after a stressful event than their control group counterparts (Het, 2007). The control group was given a placebo and found to be in a worsened mood with symptoms of negativity after a stressful event. The cortisol was found to help protect mood and negativity during and immediately following a stressful event (Het, 2007). The production of the adrenal glands decreases over time and dwindles in older adults, therefore, causing fatigue and a lack of motivation (Brennan, 2006). As documented by numerous other sources it is a well-known fact that fatigue and lack of motivation can cause short term memory to suffer. On a lighter note, research has found that the Cortisol induced inhibition of short-term memory is reversible. Elzinga documented that though working memory was inhibited in the Stress State, the rats returned to normal functioning after only ten days of non-stress situations (2005). Signifying with appropriate coping and managing stress individuals can ensure their health. There are a number of ways in which individuals can reduce the effects of stress in their lives. Exercise, proper diet and relaxation techniques can help with releases for built up tension and stress for individuals. Exercise has proven very effective in stress reduction. Stress is a normal part of human life and the manner in which the body protects itself is miraculous. When all is working correctly there is not a problem with the additional hormones or neurotransmitters produced, but in excess can become problematic. Research has shown that the body’s reactions to chronic stress can cause a host of medical conditions as well as inhibition and problems with memory. The effects of stress can be minimized with appropriate actions and awareness. Many studies have addressed the benefits of exercise and relaxation techniques as ways to alleviate everyday stress experienced by people. Alleviating recurring stress can prevent it from accumulating to a point of chronic stress and therefore negatively affecting the body’s normal functioning. A positive step towards addressing stress related health and memory issues is understanding the process by which the body protects itself as well as when a person may be experiencing more than normal str ess levels. Results Analysis Analysis of Questionnaire During the initial phase of this study, participants were asked to complete a self-assessment questionnaire. The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain information regarding the perceived stress experienced by the participants. A total of 25 responses were recorded for each question. In a question relating to short-term memory, the test group made up 52 percent of the respondents while the control group made up the remaining 48 percent. Thirty-six percent of the total respondents reported their short-term memory as being good. Of those reporting good short-term memory, 16 percent came from the test group and 20 percent from the control group. Sixty percent of the participants reported short-term memory as average. Test and control groups broke down to 32 percent and 28 percent respectively. The remaining four percent self-reported poor short-term memory, all of which came from the test group. From a gender perspective, 48 percent of the participants were male and 52 perce nt were female. Twenty percent of the males and 16 percent of the females reported good short-term memory. Likewise, 28 percent of the males and 32 percent of the females reported average short-term memory. The remaining four percent reporting poor short-term memory came from the female group. In a second question relating to long-term memory, the results indicated that 24 percent of the test group and 20 percent of the control group reports long-term memory as good. Twenty-four percent of each group reported long-term memory as average. The remaining eight percent reporting poor long-term memory were from the test group. When breaking down according to gender, we found that the male participants reported long-term memory as good, average, and poor at a rate of 8%, 32%, and 8% respectively. Of the females reporting, 36 percent stated good long-term memory and 16 percent stated average long-term memory. No females reported poor long-term memory. In a question relating to stress, the possible answer choices ranged from never, sometimes, often, and all the time. Of the total responses, four percent reported never feeling stressed, 60 percent stated they sometimes feel stress, and eight percent advised they feel stressed often. Another four percent reported that they feel stressed all of the time. When analyzed for gender only, males reported feeling stressed only sometimes or often at a rate of 28 percent and 20 percent respectively. Females reported never feeling stressed or feeling stressed all of the time four percent for each category. Females most often reported sometimes feeling stress at a rate of 32 percent. The remaining 12 percent of females reported often feeling stress. Analysis of Pulse Rate. Group Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 1. The autonomic nervous system releases hormones during periods of experience stress. The most commonly observed autonomic effects seen in most individuals are an increased heart rate, and breathing. These two effects are largely controlled through the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. For the purposes of this study, how these systems contribute to an observable change in the pulse rate and blood pressure were examined. According to the literature, adrenocorticotrophin triggers the release of Cortisol, which organizes and facilitates the release of hormones and neurotransmitters during a stressful event (Luipen, 2005). Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream in response to stress, which causes the pulse and blood pressure to increase. The results of the study indicate that the pulse rate, prior to clinical treatment to stress averaged slightly more that 80 beats per minute. At the conclusion of the clinic treatment to stress, the test group showed a slight increase in pulse rate to between 90 and 100 beats per minute. The control group exhibited only a miniscule increase during this phase of the experimentation process. No significant differences were observed either prior to or post clinical treatment. Gender Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 1. The gender differences observed prior to memory clinic 1 showed no statistical significant differences among the means with regards to observed pulse rate. The female control group exhibited a pulse rate of 80 with the males being slightly higher. The test group for each gender showed males to be slightly less than 80 beat per minute and females to be approximately 90 beats per minute. There were no absolute significant differences among the groups. However strictly among females, the pre-test results were nearing statistical significance between the control and test group. Posttest results indicate that both female and male respondents measured pulse rate changed by an insignificant amount for the control groups. The test group presented a slightly more observable increase with males showing the greatest overall change in pulse rate. A statistically significant difference among the means was observed between the fema le control and test groups. No other significant differences were observed during this phase of testing. Group and Gender Differences in Pulse Rate for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory clinic test 2 provided similar results. Pre-test females and males measured pulse rate was unremarkable from pre-test measurements prior to memory clinic 1. The post test results showed very minor changes among both the control and test groups in females and males. The results provided no statistically significant differences in any group or gender. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The results of the application of memory tests tend to provide limited support for the literature assertion that the induction of stressful events increases an individuals pulse rate (Panzarino, 2006). The differences observed between pre-test and post test measurements between the control and test groups provided no statistically significant results that fully support the hypothetical statement that stress causes the pulse rate to increase. However, the data does tend to show that stress and pulse rate may be correlated at some level and further studies may provide observations that are more significant. Analysis of Blood Pressure. Changes in blood pressure have also been enumerated as a physiological change in those subjected to stressful events. Blood pressure has also been associated with the release of hormones and neurotransmitters during a stressful event (Luipen, 2005). For the purposes of this study, a sphygmomanometer was used to measure the diastolic and systolic blood pressure of all participants. Group Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 1. According to the results of memory clinic 1, the mean diastolic blood pressure among both groups was approximately 80 mm/hg both pre-test and post test. No statistically significant differences among the means were observed. The systolic measurements were similar among the groups and again no statistically significant differences were observed. Group Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 2. When examining the results of memory clinic 2, the results mimicked those observed during memory clinic 1. Both pre-test and post-test diastolic measurements provided no significant change and were not significantly different from those observed during memory clinic 1 testing. Systolic blood pressure measurements were relatively unchanged from those observed in memory clinic 1, both pre-test and post-test. Gender Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 1. Gender differences were also analyzed to determine if stress affects males and females differently. According to the results of memory clinic test 1, both the female control and test groups showed little or no change in either diastolic or systolic blood pressure for pre-test and post-test measurements. Males tended to show little or no increase in both the control and test groups during this phase of testing also. No statistically significant differences among the means was found for either gender both pre-test and post-test. Gender Differences in Blood Pressure for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory Clinic 2 yielded results very similar to memory clinic 1. Pre-test males showed a very insignificantly higher diastolic blood pressure measurement than did other categories. This same reading was also reflected in the systolic measurements, however no significant differences were observed for either gender or group. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The existing literature generally supports the conclusion that the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system affect the release of hormones that reflectively affect an individuals blood pressure when exposed to a stressful event (Panzarino, 2006). However, these same results were not found in this particular study. No significant changes were observed between the control and test groups. Likewise, no significant differences were observed between genders. Blood pressure did not change by a measurable amount when accounting for short-term or long-term memory. These results tend to support the assertion that we would reject a null hypothesis purporting that stress causes an increase in blood pressure. Again, additional testing would be necessary to exclude blood pressure as a reaction to stress exposure completely. Analysis of Salivary Cortisol Levels Cortisol has been purported to be the primary reagent contributing to release of hormones and neurotransmitters when an individual is presented with a stressful situation. Cortisol is released as a secondary product of the pituitary gland (Miller, 2007). The primary function of cortisol is to facilitate the release of blood sugar from the liver and stores of fat for energy sue during a stressful event. To examine the changes in cortisol levels in participants, an ELISA testing kit was used. Group Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Test 1. For memory clinic 1, the salivary cortisol levels were measured both pre-test and post-test. There were no significant differences among the means found before the testing for between the control and test groups. Post-test results showed a very slight increase in the control group, elevating from less than 2 ng/L to slightly more than 3 ng/L. Those participants subjected to the stressful event yielded a much more observable increase in salivary cortisol levels. Participants pre-test measurements were approximately 2.5 ng/L and significantly increased to approximately 6.5 ng/L. This change in salivary cortisol levels provided a significant difference among the means for the test group. Group Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Test 2. Memory clinic 2 showed pre-test result that were similar to memory clinic 1. However, the post test results provided less dramatic changes. The test groups cortisol level increased from about 2 ng/L to just over 4 ng/L. These results provided no significant differences between the two means. Gender Differences in Salivary Cortisol Levels for Memory Clinic Tests. Gender differences were also analyzed. Salivary cortisol levels for females and males increased slightly for both control groups during memory clinic 1. The female and male test groups yielded significant differences. Female and male cortisol levels increased from between 2 ng/L and 3 ng/L to well above 6 ng/L. The results of memory clinic 2 also showed increase in salivary cortisol levels. Female test participants showed a significant increase in cortisol levels after subjected to the stressful event. Male test subjects showed an increase but the results were not significantly different among the means. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The results of the salivary cortisol measurements tend to support the generally accepted literary conclusion that cortisol levels and stress are positively correlated. An increase in exposure to stress tends to cause and increase in cortisol release. For the purposes of this study, measurement of salivary cortisol provided the most conclusive evidence to support the hypothesis that stress affects memory. Results of Memory Clinic Tests Group Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 1. During memory clinic test 1, each participant was given 3 minutes to memorize a series of handouts containing pictures words and numbers. The test group completed a simulated stressful event while the control group remained at ease. At the conclusion of eight minutes, the participant was asked to fill in the missing element from each of the handouts. These results were then analyzed and recorded. These results indicated that of the test group, participants were able to correctly identify approximately 5 of the missing elements correctly. The control group, who rested, was able to correctly identify slightly less than 7 missing elements. There appeared to be no significant differences between the means of the two groups. Group Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 2. Two weeks after memory clinic 1, memory clinic 2 was conducted to determine if any differences existed in memory retention among the control and test groups. The same testing criterion was followed except for the time allowed for handout review. According to the finding of memory clinic 2, both the control and test groups scored almost identically in correctly identifying the missing elements from the handouts. Each groups scores clustered around identifying two out of twenty missing elements. Gender Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 1. During this analysis, gender differences were also examined. During memory clinic 1 the female control group scored more than six out of twenty missing elements while the test group who were subjected to the stressful event, scored only four missing elements correctly. The male control group for this same clinical testing phase correctly identified approximately seven missing elements. The male test group identified six of the elements correctly. No significant differences among the means were observed for the female and male groups as observed by gender. In addition, no significant differences were noted between the gender variables. Gender Differences in Memory for Clinic Test 2. Gender differences for memory clinic 2 provided notable differences from memory clinic 1. The female control group identified less than two of the missing elements, which was almost identical to the finding of the female test group. Males scored slightly more correct answers than did the corresponding females, however the reduction in memory between the memory clinics decreased by similar levels. Comparison of Results the Current Literature. The facts observed during the clinical tests indicate that those participants subjected to a stressful event immediately before completing the memory test scored lower than those who were not subjected to stress. Both males and females scored similarly, indicating that no differences exist in memory as a result of gender. There were some minor differences in the absolute numbers of memory retention, but the differences were minute and could just as easily be explained by chance. According to Salposky, the results found in this study are comparable with other literature, regarding the fact that cortisol can in fact interfere with the ability to thin and function (2000). Limitations of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of physical and mental stress on both short and long term memory. The current study was comprised of twenty participants, which provided an adequate number for researchers to obtain a reasonable level of validity and reliability. However, the small sample size provided little additional data that could be analyzed using common statistical techniques. In addition, this studys goal was to test the correlation of pulse rate, blood pressure, and salivary cortisol levels to experience stress. The literature suggests that age may have a significant role in experienced or perceived stress levels and subsequently affect those physiological elements that were being tested (Elzinga, 2005). The demographic characteristics collected for this study did not include a provision for age measurement. Likewise, it could be assumed that original fitness levels might play a significant role when physical stress is applied as a simulator for a stressful event. Original fitness levels were not calculated nor were variables such as sports activity or body mass index, or body fat levels. This type of data may have been useful for applying a consistent level of stress based on the original conditioning of the participant. Race and/or ethic background should also be included to ascertain if any differences exist among these groups. If a larger, more diverse sample were used, variables such as occupation should also be included. Most literature suggests that some occupations maintain a higher stress level on a consistent basis. For example, the stress experienced by police officers or air traffic controllers will probably vary considerably from that of an office worker or student. The last limitation also stems from the original size of the sample. The geographic location of participants may vary depending on the regions of the country from which they were drawn. Personality types or personal characteristics may als o be included since some literature suggests that personality types differ in their perceived level of stress (Grant Langan-Fox, 2007). Suggestions For Additional Research Subsequent studies for additional research into the physiological reactions to stress should include a larger number of participants. In order to achieve a confidence level of 95 percent the sample size should approximate 387 participants. This sample size would provide data that would allow a greater range of statistical calculations and a more intense level of analysis that would lend itself to stronger validity and reliability. A larger sample size would also allow the results to be generalized to the population. Secondly, any further research should include an increased number of demographic variables. For example, race, ethnicity, age, occupation, and income levels should be included to determine if a statistically significant difference exists among other variables. Fitness level, sports activity, body mass index, and body fat should also be measured in addition to a basic categorization of personality types. Another suggestion for further research may include a series of memory clinic tests at selected intervals to determine at what point memory begins to decline after exposure to a stressful event. According to the current study, memory declined after a period of two weeks, however, the decline was not determined to be significant. Perhaps follow-up studies should be completed in two-week intervals until such time as the memory loss becomes significantly different from original results. Different types of stress should also be examined in future studies to determine if memory retention as a result of physical stress differs from emotional stress. Participants could be shown images or interviews of traumatic events such as school shootings, war scenes or impoverished children. Eustress versus distress could also be examined. Three groups could be established. The control group not subjected to treatment, the second group exposed to a distressful event and the third groups exposed to positive or typically happy events such as a wedding, graduation, or birth of a loved one. Blood sugar levels could be tested in addition to cortisol levels. In addition, individual data recorded to determine the percentage change experienced for participants. This type of data collection would yield far more significant results than taken from a group as a whole. The individual data could be collapsed as necessary provides meaningful results. Conclusion According to the results of this study, pulse rate and blood pressure are positively related to stress. However, stress does not significantly contribute to pulse rate and blood pressure. Cortisol levels do appear to have a greater impact when an individual is exposed to stressful event. The research indicates that cortisol is a positive release to the body by facilitating the release of hormones and neurotransmitters (Luipen, 2005). Persons exposed to short periods of stress exhibit an increased level of hormonal activity produced by the brain that can sharpen memory and energy levels. This type of activity is imperative for the body to prepare for the fight or flight response when exposed to danger. However, chronic exposure to stress can lead to an increased dependency for the demand of cortisol which can ultimately lead to long-term health issues such as hypertension and heart disease (National Institute of Health, 2002). The results of this study indicate a correlation between Cortisol levels, stress and memory. Short-term memory appears to be affected at a more significant level than does long-term memory. Short-term memory or primary memory is responsible for the complex cognitive processes such as logic and decision making. Information is stored in short-term memory for up to about 30 minutes. This type of information is critical for understanding the implication for exposure to acute and chronic stress in particular occupations. How stress impacts decision making can be critical for those exposed to inherent imminent dangers such as gunfire or car crashes. If researchers are able to link the variables, this can ultimately lead to changes in training for military, law enforcement, or even automobile drivers. References Brennan, Pl, Schutte, K., Moore, R. (2006). Long-Term Patterns and Predictors of Successful Stressor Resolution in Later Life. International Journal of Stress Management, 13(3), 253-272. Elzinga, B., Roelofs, K. (2005). Cortisol-Induced Impairments of Working memory Require Acute Sympathetic Activation. Behavioural neuroscience, 119(1), 98-103. Gunnar, M. , Quevedo, K. The Neurobiology of stress and Development. Annual Review of Psychology. Palo Alto: 2007. Vol. 58 pg. 145 Grant, S. Langan-Fox, J. (2007). Personality and the Occupational Stressor-Strain Relationship: The Role of the Big Five. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(1), 20-33. Het, S., Wolf, O. (2007). Mood Changes in Response to Psychosocial Stress in Healthy Young Women: Effects of Pretreatment With Cortisol. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121(1), 11-20. Kleen, J., Sitomer, M., Killeen, P., Conrad, C. (2006). Chronic Stress Impairs Spatial memory and Motivation for Reward without Disrupting Motor Ability and Motivation to Explore. Behavioural Neuroscience, 120(4), 842-851. Lupien, S. Psychoneruoendocrinology, McGill University. 2005; Vol 30: pp. 225-242 McCullough, M., Orsulak, P., Brandon, A., Akers, L. (2007). Rumination, Fear, and Cortisol: An In Vivo Study of Interpersonal Transgressions. Health Psychology, 26(1), 126-132. Miller, G.E. (Nov 2002). Chronic Psychological Stress and the Regulation of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines: A Glucocorticoid-Resistance Model. Health Psychology, Vol 21, No. 6. Miller, G., Chen, E., Zhou, E. (2007). If It Goes Up, Must It Come Down? Chronic Stress and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis in Humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 25-45. National Institute of Health. â€Å"Stress System Malfunction Could Lead to Serious, Life Threatening Disease†. NIH, Backgrounder: Sept 2002. Pawlak, R, Rao, B. Melchor, JP. Et all. â€Å"Tissue Plasminogen Activator and Plasminogen Mediate Stress-Induced Decline of Neuronal and Cognitive Functions in the Mouse hippocampus†. Proc National Academy Science USA. 2005 Dec 13; 102(50): 18201-6 Panzarino, P. â€Å"What is Stress†. Stress, Hormone and Weight Gain. MedNet Publications. 2006. Sapolsky, Robert; Lewis C. Krey, and Bruce S. McEwen (25 September 2000). The Neuroendocrinology of Stress and Aging: The Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis. Science of Aging Knowledge Environment 38: 21. Stress. Neuroanatomy. Accessed 14 March 2007 [neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/coursebook/neuro4(2).pdf] University of Pittsburgh. (2006) What is the Pituitary Gland? Department of Neurological Surgery. Research Papers on The effects of Stress on Short Term MemoryThree Concepts of PsychodynamicGenetic EngineeringThe Spring and AutumnMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductHip-Hop is ArtOpen Architechture a white paperResearch Process Part OneQuebec and CanadaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use

A Primer on Arc Elasticity

A Primer on Arc Elasticity One of the problems with the standard formulas for elasticity that are in many freshman texts is the elasticity figure you come up with is different depending on what you use as the start point and what you use as the endpoint. An example will help illustrate this. When we looked at Price Elasticity of Demand, we calculated the price elasticity of demand when the price went from $9 to $10 and demand went from 150 to 110 was 2.4005. But what if we calculated what the price elasticity of demand when we started at $10 and went to $9? So wed have: Price(OLD)10Price(NEW)9QDemand(OLD)110QDemand(NEW)150 First wed calculate the percentage change in quantity demanded: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [150 - 110] / 110 (40/110) 0.3636 (Again we leave this in decimal form) Then wed calculate the percentage change in price: [Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / Price(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [9 - 10] / 10 (-1/10) -0.1 We then use these figures to calculate the price-elasticity of demand: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) We can now fill in the two percentages in this equation using the figures we calculated earlier. PEoD (0.3636)/(-0.1) -3.636 When calculating a price elasticity, we drop the negative sign, so our final value is 3.636. Obviously, 3.6 is a lot different from 2.4, so we see that this way of measuring price elasticity is quite sensitive to which of your two points you choose as your new point, and which you choose as your old point. Arc elasticities are a way of removing this problem. When calculating Arc Elasticities, the basic relationships stay the same. So when were calculating Price Elasticity of Demand we still use the basic formula: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) However, how we calculate the percentage changes differ. Before when we calculated Price Elasticity of Demand, Price Elasticity of Supply,  Income Elasticity of Demand, or Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand wed calculate the percentage change in Quantity Demand the following way: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) To calculate an arc-elasticity, we use the following formula: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 This formula takes an average of the old quantity demanded and the new quantity demanded on the denominator. By doing so, we will get the same answer (in absolute terms) by choosing $9 as old and $10 as new, as we would choosing $10 as old and $9 as new. When we use arc elasticities we do not need to worry about which point is the starting point and which point is the ending point. This benefit comes at the cost of a more difficult calculation. If we take the example with: Price(OLD)9Price(NEW)10QDemand(OLD)150QDemand(NEW)110 We will get a percentage change of: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 [[110 - 150] / [150 110]]*2 [[-40]/[260]]*2 -0.1538 * 2 -0.3707 So we get a percentage change of -0.3707 (or -37% in percentage terms). If we swap the old and new values for old and new, the denominator will be the same, but we will get 40 in the numerator instead, giving us an answer of the 0.3707. When we calculate the percentage change in price, we will get the same values except one will be positive and the other negative. When we calculate our final answer, we will see that the elasticities will be the same and have the same sign. To conclude this piece, Ill include the formulas so you can calculate the arc versions of price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply, income elasticity, and cross-price demand elasticity. We recommend calculating each of the measures using the step-by-step fashion we detail in the previous articles. New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Supply PEoS (% Change in Quantity Supplied)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Supplied) [[QSupply(NEW) - QSupply(OLD)] / [QSupply(OLD) QSupply(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Income Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Income) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Income) [[Income(NEW) - Income(OLD)] / [Income(OLD) Income(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand of Good X PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded of X)/(% Change in Price of Y) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] Notes and Conclusion So now you can calculate elasticity using a simple formula as well as using the arc formula. In a future article, we will look at using calculus to compute elasticities. If youd like to ask a question about the elasticities, microeconomics, macroeconomics or any other topic or comment on this story, please use the feedback form.

Susan Schwartz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Susan Schwartz - Essay Example Term used for determining the target market is â€Å"market segmentation† (Daniel, 2012). Market segmentation can be defined as a process of â€Å"dividing a market into smaller groups of buyers with distinct needs, characteristics, behaviors, etc. that might require separate products or marketing mixes† (Bragg, n.d.). When the target market is to be determined for a certain product, its traits need to be studied first. It might be useful either for people of a certain age group or all age groups, a certain culture or all cultures, a certain religion or all religions, and a certain ethnicity or all ethnicities. These factors need to be considered. Three factors that play a pivotal role in the selection of target market are the size and growth of segment, its structural attractiveness, and the goals and resources of business. Modification of a product design to expand the consumer base by incorporating the requirements of a lot of communities makes the target market subj ective. â€Å"I dont know the key to success, but the key to failure is trying to please everybody† (Cosby cited in Bragg,

Freedom of speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Freedom of speech - Essay Example The law should not limit them from using the best tools available, which is what currently exists. This ban is not only discriminatory but unreasonable. It assumes that the persons involved in vandalism are under the age of 21. Further, it suggests that persons in that age group are not able to decipher what constitutes wholesome, responsible and proper behavior from what does not. This ban is an act of suppression of the right to progress beyond limits placed by the authorities. It forces persons under the age of 21 to break laws which hinders on their progress and prevents them from expressing themselves in a wholesome manner. In so doing it casts them in the light of being law breakers. It needlessly casts a level of guilt on that age group and reduces them to the level of criminals when they are really not engaged in wrongdoing. If freedom of speech is to remain the right of all this discriminatory and suppressive ban needs to be removed as it cuts at the core of creativity. The youths should not be made to pay in any way for societal problems such as that which caused the ban. Reference Find Law (n.d.). Vincenty v. Bloomberg. Retrieved from: http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1070582.html